The Global Advanced Battery and Energy Storage Market 2026-2036

1             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY            57

• 1.1        The Li-ion Battery Market       57
• 1.2        The new battery policy landscape: geopolitics, national security, and defence demand            59
• 1.3        Global Market Forecasts to 2036     60
  • 1.3.1    Addressable markets                60
  • 1.3.2    Li-ion battery pack demand for XEV (GWh) 61
    • 1.3.2.1 Battery Chemistry Distribution by Vehicle Type 2036         62
    • 1.3.2.2 OEM Strategies 2036 63
  • 1.3.3    Li-ion battery market value for XEV ($B)       63
    • 1.3.3.1 Market Value Dynamics          65
    • 1.3.3.2 Price Trajectory Drivers            65
  • 1.3.4    Semi-solid-state battery market forecast (GWh)    66
    • 1.3.4.1 Technology Roadmap              69
    • 1.3.4.2 Competitive Positioning         70
    • 1.3.4.3 Technology Evolution 2025-2036     71
  • 1.3.5    Semi-solid-state battery market value ($B)               72
    • 1.3.5.1 Pricing Dynamics        73
  • 1.3.6    Solid-state battery market forecast (GWh) 73
  • 1.3.7    Sodium-ion battery market forecast (GWh)               76
    • 1.3.7.1 Growth Analysis          78
  • 1.3.8    Sodium-ion battery market value ($B)          78
    • 1.3.8.1 Pricing Analysis            80
    • 1.3.8.2 Profitability Outlook for Sodium-Ion Manufacturers            80
  • 1.3.9    Li-ion battery demand versus beyond Li-ion batteries demand   81
    • 1.3.9.1 Market Transition Analysis    81
    • 1.3.9.2 Long-Term Outlook (Post-2036)        82
    • 1.3.9.3 Why Beyond Li-ion Remains Limited Through 2036             83
    • 1.3.9.4 Market Share Trajectories by Technology     84
  • 1.3.10 BEV car cathode forecast (GWh)      85
  • 1.3.11 BEV anode forecast (GWh)   87
  • 1.3.12 BEV anode forecast ($B)        88
  • 1.3.13 EV cathode forecast (GWh)  89
  • 1.3.14 EV Anode forecast (GWh)      91
  • 1.3.15 Advanced anode forecast (GWh)      92
  • 1.3.16 Advanced anode forecast (S$B)        94
    • 1.3.16.1            Market Dynamics 2036           95
• 1.4        The global market for advanced Li-ion batteries     95
  • 1.4.1    Electric vehicles           97
    • 1.4.1.1 Market overview           97
    • 1.4.1.2 Battery Electric Vehicles        97
    • 1.4.1.3 Electric buses, vans and trucks         98
      • 1.4.1.3.1           Electric medium and heavy duty trucks       99
      • 1.4.1.3.2           Electric light commercial vehicles (LCVs)  99
      • 1.4.1.3.3           Electric buses               100
      • 1.4.1.3.4           Micro EVs         101
    • 1.4.1.4 Electric off-road           101
      • 1.4.1.4.1           Construction vehicles              101
      • 1.4.1.4.2           Electric trains 103
      • 1.4.1.4.3           Electric boats 104
    • 1.4.1.5 Off-highway machines: construction, agriculture and mining      105
    • 1.4.1.6 Market demand and forecasts           106
    • 1.4.1.7 Market Analysis           107
      • 1.4.1.7.1           BEV Passenger Cars - Dominant Segment  107
      • 1.4.1.7.2           PHEV Passenger Cars - Transitional Technology:   108
      • 1.4.1.7.3           Profitability Analysis 2036    110
      • 1.4.1.7.4           Electric Buses               112
      • 1.4.1.7.5           Delivery Vans 112
      • 1.4.1.7.6           Medium-Duty Trucks 113
      • 1.4.1.7.7           Heavy-Duty Trucks     113
      • 1.4.1.7.8           Micro-EVs         115
        • 1.4.1.7.8.1      Micro-EV Market Overview    115
  • 1.4.2    Grid storage    118
    • 1.4.2.1 Market overview           118
    • 1.4.2.2 Technologies  119
    • 1.4.2.3 Market demand and forecasts           120
    • 1.4.2.4 Utility-Scale Grid Storage      121
      • 1.4.2.4.1           Application Categories            121
    • 1.4.2.5 Key Market Drivers      122
    • 1.4.2.6 Commercial & Industrial (C&I) Grid Storage              123
      • 1.4.2.6.1           Application Categories:          123
    • 1.4.2.7 Residential Grid Storage         125
      • 1.4.2.7.1           Application Categories            125
      • 1.4.2.7.2           Market Outlook            127
  • 1.4.3    Consumer electronics             127
    • 1.4.3.1 Market overview           127
    • 1.4.3.2 Technologies  127
    • 1.4.3.3 Market demand and forecasts           128
  • 1.4.4    Stationary batteries   129
    • 1.4.4.1 Market overview           129
    • 1.4.4.2 Technologies  130
    • 1.4.4.3 Market demand and forecasts           130
• 1.5        Market drivers                130
• 1.6        Battery market megatrends  132
• 1.7        Advanced materials for batteries      134
• 1.8        Motivation for battery development beyond lithium            138
• 1.9        Battery chemistries   140

 

2             LI-ION BATTERIES       145

• 2.1        Types of Lithium Batteries     148
• 2.2        Anode materials          150
  • 2.2.1    Graphite            152
  • 2.2.2    Lithium Titanate           152
  • 2.2.3    Lithium Metal 152
  • 2.2.4    Silicon anodes              152
• 2.3        SWOT analysis              153
• 2.4        Trends in the Li-ion battery market  154
• 2.5        Li-ion technology roadmap  154
• 2.6        Silicon anodes              156
  • 2.6.1    Benefits             157
  • 2.6.2    Silicon anode performance  158
  • 2.6.3    Development in li-ion batteries          160
    • 2.6.3.1 Manufacturing silicon              161
    • 2.6.3.2 Commercial production         162
    • 2.6.3.3 Costs  164
    • 2.6.3.4 Value chain     164
    • 2.6.3.5 Markets and applications      165
      • 2.6.3.5.1           EVs       166
      • 2.6.3.5.2           Consumer electronics             167
      • 2.6.3.5.3           Energy Storage              168
      • 2.6.3.5.4           Portable Power Tools 168
      • 2.6.3.5.5           Emergency Backup Power     169
    • 2.6.3.6 Future outlook              169
  • 2.6.4    Consumption 170
    • 2.6.4.1 By anode material type            170
    • 2.6.4.2 By end use market      172
    • 2.6.4.3 Market Segment Analysis      174
      • 2.6.4.3.1           Passenger EVs               174
      • 2.6.4.3.2           Commercial EVs          174
      • 2.6.4.3.3           Consumer Electronics             175
      • 2.6.4.3.4           Stationary Storage      175
      • 2.6.4.3.5           Industrial & Others     176
  • 2.6.5    Alloy anode materials              177
  • 2.6.6    Silicon-carbon composites  177
  • 2.6.7    Silicon oxides and coatings  178
  • 2.6.8    Carbon nanotubes in Li-ion  178
  • 2.6.9    Graphene coatings for Li-ion               179
  • 2.6.10 Prices  179
    • 2.6.10.1            Price Trend Analysis and Drivers       180
      • 2.6.10.1.1        Natural Graphite          180
      • 2.6.10.1.2        Synthetic Graphite     180
      • 2.6.10.1.3        Silicon-Graphite Composite 181
      • 2.6.10.1.4        Silicon-Dominant       182
      • 2.6.10.1.5        Lithium Metal 182
      • 2.6.10.1.6        Lithium Titanate/LTO 183
  • 2.6.11 Companies     184
• 2.7        Li-ion electrolytes        185
• 2.8        Cathodes          185
  • 2.8.1    Materials           185
    • 2.8.1.1 High and Ultra-High nickel cathode materials         187
      • 2.8.1.1.1           Types   187
      • 2.8.1.1.2           Benefits             187
      • 2.8.1.1.3           Stability             188
      • 2.8.1.1.4           Single Crystal Cathodes         190
      • 2.8.1.1.5           Commercial activity  191
      • 2.8.1.1.6           Manufacturing              191
      • 2.8.1.1.7           High manganese content       192
    • 2.8.1.2 Zero-cobalt NMx          192
      • 2.8.1.2.1           Overview           192
      • 2.8.1.2.2           Ultra-high nickel, zero-cobalt cathodes       192
      • 2.8.1.2.3           Extending the operating voltage        193
      • 2.8.1.2.4           Operating NMC cathodes at high voltages 193
    • 2.8.1.3 Lithium-Manganese-Rich (Li-Mn-Rich, LMR-NMC)               194
      • 2.8.1.3.1           Li-Mn-rich cathodes LMR-NMC         194
      • 2.8.1.3.2           Stability             195
      • 2.8.1.3.3           Energy density               195
      • 2.8.1.3.4           Commercialization    197
      • 2.8.1.3.5           Hybrid battery chemistry design for manganese-rich         199
    • 2.8.1.4 Lithium Cobalt Oxide(LiCoO2) — LCO          200
    • 2.8.1.5 Lithium Iron Phosphate(LiFePO4) — LFP     201
    • 2.8.1.6 Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4) — LMO          202
    • 2.8.1.7 Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO2) — NMC 203
    • 2.8.1.8 Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO2) — NCA       203
    • 2.8.1.9 Lithium manganese phosphate (LiMnP)      204
    • 2.8.1.10            Lithium manganese iron phosphate (LiMnFePO4 or LMFP)             204
      • 2.8.1.10.1        Key characteristics    204
      • 2.8.1.10.2        LMFP energy density 207
      • 2.8.1.10.3        Costs  207
      • 2.8.1.10.4        Saft phosphate-based cathodes       208
      • 2.8.1.10.5        Commercialization    208
      • 2.8.1.10.6        Challenges      209
      • 2.8.1.10.7        LMFP (lithium manganese iron phosphate) market              210
      • 2.8.1.10.8        Companies     211
    • 2.8.1.11            Lithium nickel manganese oxide (LNMO)    212
      • 2.8.1.11.1        Overview           212
      • 2.8.1.11.2        High-voltage spinel cathode LNMO 212
      • 2.8.1.11.3        LNMO energy density               214
      • 2.8.1.11.4        Cathode chemistry selection              214
      • 2.8.1.11.5        LNMO (lithium nickel manganese oxide) high-voltage spinel cathodes cost       215
    • 2.8.1.12            Graphite and LTO        216
    • 2.8.1.13            Silicon 217
    • 2.8.1.14            Lithium metal 217
  • 2.8.2    Alternative Cathode Production        218
    • 2.8.2.1 Production/Synthesis               218
    • 2.8.2.2 Commercial development    219
    • 2.8.2.3 Recycling cathodes    220
  • 2.8.3    Comparison of key lithium-ion cathode materials 222
  • 2.8.4    Emerging cathode material synthesis methods      222
  • 2.8.5    Cathode coatings        223
• 2.9        Binders and conductive additives    223
  • 2.9.1    Materials           223
• 2.10     Separators       224
  • 2.10.1 Materials           224
• 2.11     High-Performance Lithium-Ion Systems: Approaching 350 Wh/kg            224
  • 2.11.1 Energy Density Evolution and Current State              225
  • 2.11.2 Pathways to 350+ Wh/kg        226
    • 2.11.2.1            Cathode Advances     226
    • 2.11.2.2            Anode Advances          226
      • 2.11.2.2.1        Silicon-Graphite Composites (20-40% Si)  226
      • 2.11.2.2.2        Silicon-Dominant Anodes (50-80% Si)          227
      • 2.11.2.2.3        Lithium Metal Anodes              227
    • 2.11.2.3            Electrolyte and Cell Design Optimization   228
  • 2.11.3 Performance Projections and Technology Roadmap          228
    • 2.11.3.1            Critical Dependencies and Risk Factors      229
  • 2.11.4 Commercial Deployment Timeline 229
• 2.12     Silicon-carbon composite anodes  231
  • 2.12.1 Technology architecture and performance characteristics             231
  • 2.12.2 Manufacturing scale-up         232
  • 2.12.3 Market forecast            232
  • 2.12.4 Key commercial players          233
• 2.13     PFAS-Free Battery Additives and Regulatory Transitions  234
  • 2.13.1 Global Regulatory Trend Analysis    235
  • 2.13.2 PFAS Materials in Current Battery Manufacturing 235
  • 2.13.3 Non-PFAS Cathode Binders - The Critical Challenge           236
  • 2.13.4 Non-PFAS Cathode Binder Technologies     237
    • 2.13.4.1            Polyacrylic Acid (PAA) and Lithium Polyacrylate (Li-PAA)  237
    • 2.13.4.2            Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) and Modified Cellulose Derivatives      238
    • 2.13.4.3            Polyacrylamide (PAM) and Acrylamide Copolymers            238
    • 2.13.4.4            Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) and Synthetic Rubber Derivatives         239
    • 2.13.4.5            Hybrid and Composite Binder Systems        240
  • 2.13.5 PFAS in Electrolyte Additives - Critical Performance Trade-offs   241
    • 2.13.5.1            Major PFAS Electrolyte Additives      242
  • 2.13.6 Market Analysis           244
    • 2.13.6.1            Battery additives market forecast and structural shifts     246
    • 2.13.6.2            Dry electrode processing and its binder implications         247
    • 2.13.6.3            Path to the first PFAS-free commercial Li-ion cell  248
• 2.14     Platinum group metals            249
• 2.15     Li-ion battery market players               249
• 2.16     Li-ion recycling              249
  • 2.16.1 Comparison of recycling techniques              251
  • 2.16.2 Hydrometallurgy          253
    • 2.16.2.1            Method overview         253
      • 2.16.2.1.1        Solvent extraction       254
    • 2.16.2.2            SWOT analysis              255
  • 2.16.3 Pyrometallurgy              256
    • 2.16.3.1            Method overview         256
    • 2.16.3.2            SWOT analysis              256
  • 2.16.4 Direct recycling             257
    • 2.16.4.1            Method overview         257
      • 2.16.4.1.1        Electrolyte separation              258
      • 2.16.4.1.2        Separating cathode and anode materials   259
      • 2.16.4.1.3        Binder removal             259
      • 2.16.4.1.4        Relithiation      259
      • 2.16.4.1.5        Cathode recovery and rejuvenation                260
      • 2.16.4.1.6        Hydrometallurgical-direct hybrid recycling                261
    • 2.16.4.2            SWOT analysis              261
  • 2.16.5 Other methods             262
    • 2.16.5.1            Mechanochemical Pretreatment      262
    • 2.16.5.2            Electrochemical Method        262
    • 2.16.5.3            Ionic Liquids   263
  • 2.16.6 Recycling of Specific Components 263
    • 2.16.6.1            Anode (Graphite)         263
    • 2.16.6.2            Cathode            263
    • 2.16.6.3            Electrolyte        264
  • 2.16.7 Recycling of Beyond Li-ion Batteries               264
    • 2.16.7.1            Conventional vs Emerging Processes            264
  • 2.16.8 Companies     265
• 2.17     Global revenues           276
  • 2.17.1 Passenger EVs               277
  • 2.17.2 Commercial EVs          279
    • 2.17.2.1            Electric Buses               280
    • 2.17.2.2            Medium & Heavy-Duty Trucks             280
    • 2.17.2.3            Light Commercial Vehicles/Vans     281
    • 2.17.2.4            Two/Three-Wheeler EVs         281
  • 2.17.3 Consumer Electronics             283
  • 2.17.4 Stationary Storage      286
  • 2.17.5 Industrial Applications            289
  • 2.17.6 Other Applications     290
• 2.18     EV Battery Cell and Pack Materials Outlook              292
  • 2.18.1 Cathode materials: the LFP/LMFP and high-nickel bifurcation     293
  • 2.18.2 Anode materials: silicon rises, graphite persists    296
  • 2.18.3 Other cell materials   297
  • 2.18.4 Pack materials: the aluminium-to-composite transition  297
  • 2.18.5 Supply chain localisation and material-security considerations 297

 

3             LITHIUM-METAL BATTERIES 299

• 3.1        Technology description           299
• 3.2        Solid-state batteries and lithium metal anodes      300
• 3.3        Increasing energy density      301
• 3.4        Lithium-metal anodes             301
  • 3.4.1    Overview           301
• 3.5        Challenges      302
• 3.6        Energy density               303
• 3.7        Anode-less Cells         303
  • 3.7.1    Overview           303
  • 3.7.2    Benefits             304
  • 3.7.3    Key companies             305
• 3.8        Lithium-metal and solid-state batteries       306
• 3.9        Hybrid batteries            306
• 3.10     Applications   308
• 3.11     SWOT analysis              309
• 3.12     Product developers    310

 

4             LITHIUM-SULFUR BATTERIES              312

• 4.1        Technology description           312
• 4.2        Operating principle of lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries            313
  • 4.2.1    Advantages     314
  • 4.2.2    Challenges      314
  • 4.2.3    Commercialization    318
• 4.3        Costs  320
• 4.4        Material composition               321
• 4.5        Lithium intensity          322
• 4.6        Value chain     323
• 4.7        Markets              324
• 4.8        SWOT analysis              325
• 4.9        Global revenues           326
  • 4.9.1    Key Insights and Technology Status                327
    • 4.9.1.1 Commercial Status    328
• 4.10     Product developers    329

 

5             LITHIUM TITANATE OXIDE (LTO) AND NIOBATE BATTERIES              330

• 5.1        Technology description           330
  • 5.1.1    Lithium titanate oxide (LTO) 330
  • 5.1.2    Niobium titanium oxide (NTO)            330
    • 5.1.2.1 Niobium tungsten oxide          331
    • 5.1.2.2 Vanadium oxide anodes         332
• 5.2        Global revenues           332
  • 5.2.1    Application Analysis 334
    • 5.2.1.1 Electric Buses               334
    • 5.2.1.2 Commercial Vehicles               334
    • 5.2.1.3 Consumer Electronics             335
    • 5.2.1.4 Industrial Equipment                335
    • 5.2.1.5 Grid Frequency Regulation   335
• 5.3        Future Outlook             335
• 5.4        Product developers    336

 

6             SODIUM-ION (NA-ION) BATTERIES 337

• 6.1        Technology description           337
  • 6.1.1    Cathode materials     337
    • 6.1.1.1 Layered transition metal oxides        337
      • 6.1.1.1.1           Types   337
      • 6.1.1.1.2           Cycling performance 338
      • 6.1.1.1.3           Advantages and disadvantages        339
      • 6.1.1.1.4           Market prospects for LO SIB 339
    • 6.1.1.2 Polyanionic materials               339
      • 6.1.1.2.1           Advantages and disadvantages        340
      • 6.1.1.2.2           Types   340
      • 6.1.1.2.3           Market prospects for Poly SIB             341
    • 6.1.1.3 Prussian blue analogues (PBA)          341
      • 6.1.1.3.1           Types   342
      • 6.1.1.3.2           Advantages and disadvantages        342
      • 6.1.1.3.3           Market prospects for PBA-SIB             343
  • 6.1.2    Anode materials          343
    • 6.1.2.1 Hard carbons 344
    • 6.1.2.2 Carbon black 345
    • 6.1.2.3 Graphite            346
    • 6.1.2.4 Carbon nanotubes     349
    • 6.1.2.5 Graphene         350
    • 6.1.2.6 Alloying materials       351
    • 6.1.2.7 Sodium Titanates        352
    • 6.1.2.8 Sodium Metal 352
  • 6.1.3    Electrolytes     352
• 6.2        Comparative analysis with other battery types        353
• 6.3        Cost comparison with Li-ion                354
• 6.4        Materials in sodium-ion battery cells             354
• 6.5        SWOT analysis              356
• 6.6        Global revenues           357
  • 6.6.1    Market Analysis by Application          360
    • 6.6.1.1 Low-Cost EVs 360
    • 6.6.1.2 Grid Energy Storage   360
    • 6.6.1.3 E-bikes and Light EVs               361
    • 6.6.1.4 Consumer Electronics             361
• 6.7        Market Growth Drivers             361
• 6.8        Technology Roadmap              362
• 6.9        Future Outlook             362
• 6.10     Product developers    363
  • 6.10.1 Battery Manufacturers            363
  • 6.10.2 Large Corporations    363
  • 6.10.3 Automotive Companies          364
  • 6.10.4 Chemicals and Materials Firms         364

 

7             SODIUM-SULFUR BATTERIES             365

• 7.1        Technology description           365
• 7.2        Applications   366
• 7.3        SWOT analysis              367

 

8             ALUMINIUM-ION BATTERIES               369

• 8.1        Technology description           369
  • 8.1.1    Aluminium-Ion Battery Fundamentals          370
• 8.2        SWOT analysis              371
• 8.3        Commercialization    372
• 8.4        Global revenues           373
  • 8.4.1    Market Analysis by Application          374
• 8.5        Product developers    376

 

9             SOLID STATE BATTERIES         377

• 9.1        Introduction    377
• 9.2        Technology description           378
  • 9.2.1    Solid-state electrolytes            380
• 9.3        Features and advantages      381
• 9.4        Technical specifications         382
• 9.5        Types   384
• 9.6        Technology Readiness and Manufacturing Status 386
  • 9.6.1    Manufacturing Process Comparison             388
  • 9.6.2    Critical Manufacturing Challenges and Solutions 389
    • 9.6.2.1 Interface Engineering (Most Critical Challenge)      389
    • 9.6.2.2 Moisture Sensitivity (Sulfide Systems)          390
    • 9.6.2.3 Pressure Management (Oxide and Some Sulfide Systems)             390
• 9.7        Automotive OEM Strategies and Deployment Timelines   390
  • 9.7.1    Deployment    392
    • 9.7.1.1 OEM Strategic Considerations           393
• 9.8        Microbatteries               393
  • 9.8.1    Introduction    393
  • 9.8.2    Materials           393
  • 9.8.3    Applications   394
  • 9.8.4    3D designs      394
    • 9.8.4.1 3D printed batteries   394
• 9.9        Bulk type solid-state batteries            395
• 9.10     SWOT analysis              395
• 9.11     Limitations      397
• 9.12     Global revenues           398
• 9.13     Commercialization Timeline                399
• 9.14     Product developers    401

 

10          STRUCTURAL BATTERY COMPOSITES           403

• 10.1     Introduction    403
• 10.2     Materials and Architecture    403
• 10.3     Applications   405
  • 10.3.1 Electric Vehicle Applications              405
  • 10.3.2 Aerospace and Aviation          406
  • 10.3.3 Consumer Electronics and Portable Devices           407
  • 10.3.4 Construction and Infrastructure       407
• 10.4     Technical Challenges               407
  • 10.4.1 Energy Density Limitations   407
  • 10.4.2 Long-term Mechanical and Electrochemical Stability        408
• 10.5     Supply chain  408
• 10.6     Market Forecasts        409
• 10.7     Safety Considerations             410
  • 10.7.1 Safety Challenges       410
• 10.8     Environmental profile of structural battery composites    411

 

11          FLEXIBLE BATTERIES 413

• 11.1     Technology description           413
• 11.2     Technical specifications         414
  • 11.2.1 Approaches to flexibility         414
• 11.3     Flexible electronics    419
• 11.4     Flexible materials        420
• 11.5     Flexible and wearable Metal-sulfur batteries            421
• 11.6     Flexible and wearable Metal-air batteries   422
• 11.7     Flexible Lithium-ion Batteries             422
  • 11.7.1 Types of Flexible/stretchable LIBs    426
    • 11.7.1.1            Flexible planar LiBs   426
    • 11.7.1.2            Flexible Fiber LiBs       426
    • 11.7.1.3            Flexible micro-LiBs    427
    • 11.7.1.4            Stretchable lithium-ion batteries      428
    • 11.7.1.5            Origami and kirigami lithium-ion batteries  430
• 11.8     Flexible Li/S batteries                430
  • 11.8.1 Components  431
  • 11.8.2 Carbon nanomaterials            431
• 11.9     Flexible lithium-manganese dioxide (Li–MnO2) batteries 432
• 11.10  Flexible zinc-based batteries               432
  • 11.10.1              Components  433
    • 11.10.1.1         Anodes              433
    • 11.10.1.2         Cathodes          433
  • 11.10.2              Challenges      433
  • 11.10.3              Flexible zinc-manganese dioxide (Zn–Mn) batteries             434
  • 11.10.4              Flexible silver–zinc (Ag–Zn) batteries              435
  • 11.10.5              Flexible Zn–Air batteries          436
  • 11.10.6              Flexible zinc-vanadium batteries      437
• 11.11  Fiber-shaped batteries             437
  • 11.11.1              Carbon nanotubes     437
  • 11.11.2              Types   438
  • 11.11.3              Applications   439
  • 11.11.4              Challenges      439
• 11.12  Energy harvesting combined with wearable energy storage devices         440
• 11.13  SWOT analysis              442
• 11.14  Global revenues           443
• 11.15  Companies     445

 

12          TRANSPARENT BATTERIES    447

• 12.1     Technology description           447
• 12.2     Components  448
• 12.3     SWOT analysis              449
• 12.4     Market outlook             450

 

13          DEGRADABLE BATTERIES      451

• 13.1     Technology description           451
• 13.2     Components  452
• 13.3     SWOT analysis              453
• 13.4     Market outlook             454
• 13.5     Product developers    454

 

14          PRINTED BATTERIES 455

• 14.1     Technical specifications         455
• 14.2     Components  456
• 14.3     Design 457
• 14.4     Key features    458
• 14.5     Printable current collectors  458
• 14.6     Printable electrodes  459
• 14.7     Materials           459
• 14.8     Applications   460
• 14.9     Printing techniques    460
• 14.10  Lithium-ion (LIB) printed batteries    462
• 14.11  Zinc-based printed batteries                463
• 14.12  3D Printed batteries   466
  • 14.12.1              3D Printing techniques for battery manufacturing 467
  • 14.12.2              Materials for 3D printed batteries     468
    • 14.12.2.1         Electrode materials   468
    • 14.12.2.2         Electrolyte Materials 469
• 14.13  SWOT analysis              469
• 14.14  Global revenues           470
• 14.15  Product developers    472

 

15          REDOX FLOW BATTERIES      474

• 15.1     Technology description           475
• 15.2     Market Overview          476
• 15.3     Technology Benchmarking - Chemistry Comparison          478
• 15.4     Chemistry Selection Matrix by Application 480
• 15.5     Component Technologies and Cost Reduction Pathways                481
• 15.6     Component Innovation           482
  • 15.6.1 Membranes    482
  • 15.6.2 Bipolar Plates 483
  • 15.6.3 Electrolyte Cost Reduction   483
• 15.7     Types   483
  • 15.7.1 Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB)          485
    • 15.7.1.1            Technology description           485
    • 15.7.1.2            SWOT analysis              487
    • 15.7.1.3            Market players               488
  • 15.7.2 Zinc-bromine flow batteries (ZnBr)  489
    • 15.7.2.1            Technology description           489
    • 15.7.2.2            SWOT analysis              491
    • 15.7.2.3            Market players               492
  • 15.7.3 Polysulfide bromine flow batteries (PSB)     492
    • 15.7.3.1            Technology description           492
    • 15.7.3.2            SWOT analysis              493
  • 15.7.4 Iron-chromium flow batteries (ICB) 494
    • 15.7.4.1            Technology description           494
    • 15.7.4.2            SWOT analysis              496
    • 15.7.4.3            Market players               497
  • 15.7.5 All-Iron flow batteries                497
    • 15.7.5.1            Technology description           497
    • 15.7.5.2            SWOT analysis              498
    • 15.7.5.3            Market players               499
  • 15.7.6 Zinc-iron (Zn-Fe) flow batteries          500
    • 15.7.6.1            Technology description           500
    • 15.7.6.2            SWOT analysis              501
    • 15.7.6.3            Market players               502
  • 15.7.7 Hydrogen-bromine (H-Br) flow batteries      502
    • 15.7.7.1            Technology description           502
    • 15.7.7.2            SWOT analysis              504
  • 15.7.8 Hydrogen-Manganese (H-Mn) flow batteries             505
    • 15.7.8.1            Technology description           505
    • 15.7.8.2            SWOT analysis              506
    • 15.7.8.3            Market players               507
  • 15.7.9 Organic flow batteries              508
    • 15.7.9.1            Technology description           508
    • 15.7.9.2            SWOT analysis              510
    • 15.7.9.3            Market players               511
  • 15.7.10              Emerging Flow-Batteries         511
    • 15.7.10.1         Semi-Solid Redox Flow Batteries      511
    • 15.7.10.2         Solar Redox Flow Batteries   512
    • 15.7.10.3         Air-Breathing Sulfur Flow Batteries  512
    • 15.7.10.4         Metal–CO2 Batteries 513
  • 15.7.11              Hybrid Flow Batteries               513
    • 15.7.11.1         Zinc-Cerium Hybrid Flow Batteries  513
      • 15.7.11.1.1     Technology description           513
    • 15.7.11.2         Zinc-Polyiodide Flow Batteries           514
      • 15.7.11.2.1     Technology description           514
    • 15.7.11.3         Zinc-Nickel Hybrid Flow Batteries    515
      • 15.7.11.3.1     Technology description           515
    • 15.7.11.4         Zinc-Bromine Hybrid Flow Batteries               516
      • 15.7.11.4.1     Technology description           516
    • 15.7.11.5         Vanadium-Polyhalide Flow Batteries              517
      • 15.7.11.5.1     Technology description           517
  • 15.7.12              Carbon dioxide (CO₂) redox flow batteries  518
    • 15.7.12.1         Chemistry and operating principle  518
• 15.8     Markets for redox flow batteries         520
  • 15.8.1 Primary Market Drivers            522
    • 15.8.1.1            Variable Renewable Energy (VRE) Integration           522
    • 15.8.1.2            Long-Duration Energy Storage (LDES) Policy Support         523
    • 15.8.1.3            Grid Stability and Resilience Requirements              524
    • 15.8.1.4            Data Center and Telecommunications Backup Power (Emerging Driver)               524
• 15.9     Global revenues           527
• 15.10  Key Trends       528
• 15.11  Regional Market Analysis and Capacity Distribution           530
  • 15.11.1              China  531
  • 15.11.2              North America              532
  • 15.11.3              Europe                532
  • 15.12  Long-duration energy storage (LDES) positioning  533
• 15.13  Levelised cost of storage: RFB vs Li-ion LFP by duration   533
• 15.14  Policy frameworks supporting RFB deployment      534
• 15.15  Market forecast to 2036 by chemistry and region  535

 

16          ZN-BASED BATTERIES              538

• 16.1     Technology description           538
  • 16.1.1 Zinc-Air batteries         538
  • 16.1.2 Zinc-ion batteries        539
  • 16.1.3 Zinc-bromide 540
• 16.2     Market outlook             540
• 16.3     Product developers    541

 

17          BATTERIES IN OFF-HIGHWAY MACHINES   542

• 17.1     Introduction to electric off-highway machines        542
  • 17.1.1 Advantages and barriers to machine electrification             542
  • 17.1.2 Electrification drivers differ by segment       543
• 17.2     Electric construction machines        543
• 17.3     Electric agriculture machines            543
• 17.4     Electric mining machines      544
• 17.5     Battery requirements of electric off-highway machines    544
  • 17.5.1 Battery sizing 545
  • 17.5.2 Battery power and discharge rates  545
  • 17.5.3 Charging rates               545
  • 17.5.4 Voltage architecture  545
  • 17.5.5 Lifetime and cycle-life requirements              545
• 17.6     Turnkey battery technologies and benchmarking  546
• 17.7     Battery suppliers and case studies 547
  • 17.7.1 Turnkey pack manufacturers               547
  • 17.7.2 Acquisitions, spin-outs and restructurings                547
• 17.8     Future battery technologies for off-highway machines      547
• 17.9     Global off-highway battery market forecast              548
• 17.10  Outlook             549

 

18          BATTERY STORAGE FOR DATA CENTRES, COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS             550

• 18.1     C&I BESS applications and market overview            551
  • 18.1.1 Battery storage for data centres         551
  • 18.1.2 Battery storage for 5G and 6G telecommunications base stations            552
  • 18.1.3 Battery storage for EV charging infrastructure          552
  • 18.1.4 Battery storage at construction, agriculture and mining sites       553
  • 18.1.5 Battery storage for other C&I applications 553
• 18.2     C&I BESS technology landscape      553
• 18.3     The US LFP manufacturing transition: 45X, FEOC, and tariff dynamics  554
• 18.4     Li-ion C&I BESS cost structure           556
• 18.5     Key players and competitive landscape      556
• 18.6     Market outlook             557

 

19          AI BATTERY TECHNOLOGY   558

• 19.1     Overview           558
• 19.2     Applications   558
  • 19.2.1 Machine Learning       559
    • 19.2.1.1            Overview           559
  • 19.2.2 Material Informatics  560
    • 19.2.2.1            Overview           560
    • 19.2.2.2            Companies     562
  • 19.2.3 Cell Testing      564
    • 19.2.3.1            Overview           564
    • 19.2.3.2            Companies     565
  • 19.2.4 Cell Assembly and Manufacturing  567
    • 19.2.4.1            Overview           567
    • 19.2.4.2            Companies     569
  • 19.2.5 Battery Analytics         570
    • 19.2.5.1            Overview           570
    • 19.2.5.2            Companies     572
  • 19.2.6 Second Life Assessment       573
    • 19.2.6.1            Overview           573
    • 19.2.6.2            Companies     574

 

20          CELL AND BATTERY DESIGN                576

• 20.1     Cell Design      576
  • 20.1.1 Overview           576
    • 20.1.1.1            Larger cell formats     576
    • 20.1.1.2            Bipolar battery architecture 576
    • 20.1.1.3            Thick Format Electrodes         577
    • 20.1.1.4            Dual Electrolyte Li-ion             577
  • 20.1.2 Commercial examples            578
    • 20.1.2.1            Tesla 4680 Tabless Cell           578
    • 20.1.2.2            EnPower multi-layer electrode technology 578
    • 20.1.2.3            Prieto Battery 579
    • 20.1.2.4            Addionics         580
  • 20.1.3 Electrolyte Additives 580
  • 20.1.4 Enhancing battery performance        581
• 20.2     Cell Performance        582
  • 20.2.1 Energy density               582
    • 20.2.1.1            BEV cell energy             582
    • 20.2.1.2            Cell energy density     583
• 20.3     Battery Packs 585
  • 20.3.1 Cell-to-pack    585
  • 20.3.2 Cell-to-chassis/body                587
  • 20.3.3 Bipolar batteries          590
  • 20.3.4 Hybrid battery packs 591
    • 20.3.4.1            CATL    591
    • 20.3.4.2            Our Next Energy           592
    • 20.3.4.3            Nio        592
  • 20.3.5 Battery Management System (BMS)               593
    • 20.3.5.1            Overview           593
    • 20.3.5.2            Advantages     594
    • 20.3.5.3            Innovation        594
    • 20.3.5.4            Fast charging capabilities     595
    • 20.3.5.5            Wireless Battery Management System technology               596
  • 20.3.6 Advanced battery pack sensors and remote monitoring  597
    • 20.3.6.1            The thermal runaway early-detection problem       597
    • 20.3.6.2            Advanced sensor technologies          597
    • 20.3.6.3            Market forecast            598
    • 20.3.6.4            Remote monitoring and wireless BMS architectures           599
    • 20.3.6.5            Integration and the path to predictive maintenance            600

 

21          COMPANY PROFILES                601 (449 company profiles)

 

22          RESEARCH METHODOLOGY              956

• 22.1     Report scope 956
• 22.2     Research methodology           956

 

23          REFERENCES 957

 

List of Tables

• Table 1. Trends in the Li-ion market.               57
• Table 2. Li-ion manufacturing capacity vs. production, by region, 2025 and 2031 (GWh).          58
• Table 3. Total Addressable Market for Li-ion Batteries.       60
• Table 4. Li-ion battery pack demand for XEV (GWh) 2019-2036. 61
• Table 5. Regional XEV Battery Demand 2036            62
• Table 6. Li-ion battery market value for XEV (in $B) 2019-2036.   63
• Table 7. Market Value by Chemistry 2036. 66
• Table 8. Regional Market Value Distribution 2036. 66
• Table 9. Semi-solid-state battery market forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.     67
• Table 10. Semi-solid-state battery Application Analysis 2036.     68
• Table 11. Semi-solid-state battery Cost Evolution.               69
• Table 12. Semi-solid-state battery market forecast, GWh,  by electrolyte types 2019-2036.   70
• Table 13. Semi-solid-state battery market value ($B) 2019-2036.              72
• Table 14. Application Value Breakdown 2036.         73
• Table 15. Solid-state battery market forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.               73
• Table 16. Solid-state battery market forecast, GWh, by electrolyte types 2019-2036. 75
• Table 17. Sodium-ion battery market forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.             77
• Table 18. Sodium-ion Technology Distribution 2036.          78
• Table 19. Sodium-ion battery market value ($B) 2019-2036.         78
• Table 20. Sodium-ion Regional Market Value 2036.             80
• Table 21. Li-ion battery demand versus beyond Li-ion batteries demand 2019-2036.  81
• Table 22. Technology Composition of Beyond Li-ion 2036.             82
• Table 23. Market Value Comparison: Li-ion vs Beyond Li-ion 2036            85
• Table 24. BEV car cathode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.     85
• Table 25. BEV anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.  87
• Table 26. BEV anode forecast ($B) 2019-2036.       88
• Table 27. EV cathode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036. 89
• Table 28. EV Anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.     91
• Table 29. Advanced anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.    92
• Table 30. Advanced anode forecast (S$B) 2019-2036.      94
• Table 31. Annual sales of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) 2018-2036.     96
• Table 32. Battery chemistries used in electric buses.         100
• Table 33. Micro EV types         101
• Table 34. Battery Sizes for Different Vehicle Types.               103
• Table 35. Competing technologies for batteries in electric boats.              104
• Table 36. Off-highway battery demand forecast by segment and technology, 2025–2036 (GWh).        106
• Table 37. Electric car Li-ion demand forecast (GWh), 2018-2036.             106
• Table 38. Regional Breakdown 2036.             108
• Table 39. Battery Chemistry Distribution 2036.      109
• Table 40. EV Li-ion battery market (US$B), 2018-2036.     109
• Table 41. Electric bus, truck and van battery forecast (GWh), 2018-2036.           111
• Table 42. Regional Distribution 2036.            114
• Table 43. Battery Chemistry Distribution 2036.      114
• Table 44. Micro EV Li-ion demand forecast (GWh).               115
• Table 45. Regional Micro-EVs Battery Value 2036. 118
• Table 46. Competing technologies for batteries in grid storage.  119
• Table 47. Lithium-ion battery grid storage demand forecast (GWh), 2018-2036.             120
• Table 48. Utility-Scale Grid Storage Project Size Distribution 2036:          121
• Table 49. Utility-Scale Grid Storage Geographic Distribution 2036.          122
• Table 50. Battery Chemistry Mix Utility-Scale 2036.            122
• Table 51. Commercial & Industrial (C&I) Grid Storage Customer Segments 2036.         124
• Table 52. Commercial & Industrial (C&I) Grid Storage Geographic Distribution 2036.  124
• Table 53. Battery Chemistry Mix C&I 2036. 124
• Table 54. Residential Grid Storage Geographic Distribution 2036.             126
• Table 55. Battery Chemistry Mix Residential 2036.              126
• Table 56. Competing technologies for batteries in consumer electronics             127
• Table 57. Competing technologies for sodium-ion batteries in grid storage.       130
• Table 58. Market drivers for use of advanced materials and technologies in batteries. 131
• Table 59. Battery market megatrends.           132
• Table 60. Advanced materials for batteries.               134
• Table 61. Motivation for Battery Development Beyond Lithium    138
• Table 62. Battery Chemistries             141
• Table 63. Commercial Li-ion battery cell composition.     145
• Table 64.  Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery supply chain.            148
• Table 65. Types of lithium battery.    149
• Table 66. Comparison of Li-ion battery anode materials. 150
• Table 67. Trends in the Li-ion battery market.           154
• Table 68. Si-anode performance summary.              158
• Table 69. Manufacturing methods for nano-silicon anodes.          161
• Table 70. Market Players' Production Capacites.   162
• Table 71. Strategic Partnerships and Agreements.                163
• Table 72. Markets and applications for silicon anodes.     166
• Table 73. Anode material consumption by type (tonnes). 170
• Table 74. Anode material consumption by end use market (tonnes).       173
• Table 75. Anode materials prices, current and forecasted (USD/kg).       179
• Table 76. Silicon-anode companies.              184
• Table 77. Li-ion battery cathode materials.                186
• Table 78. Key technology trends shaping lithium-ion battery cathode development.    186
• Table 79. Benefits of High and Ultra-High Nickel NMC.      187
• Table 80. Routes to High Nickel Cathode Stabilisation      189
• Table 81. High-nickel Products Table.            191
• Table 82. Li-Mn-rich / lithium-manganese-rich / LMR-NMC costs.             196
• Table 83. Commercial lithium-manganese-rich cathode development. 197
• Table 84. Lithium-manganese-rich cathode developers    199
• Table 85. Properties of Lithium Cobalt Oxide) as a cathode material for lithium-ion batteries.               200
• Table 86. Properties of lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4 or LFP) as a cathode material for lithium-ion batteries.          201
• Table 87. Properties of Lithium Manganese Oxide cathode material.       202
• Table 88. Properties of Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC).               203
• Table 89. Properties of Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide   204
• Table 90. LMFP Cell Performance.   206
• Table 91. LMFP Energy Density Analysis      207
• Table 92. LMFP Cost Analysis             207
• Table 93. LMFP Cathode Developers.            211
• Table 94. LNMO Performance.           213
• Table 95. LNMO Energy Density Comparison           214
• Table 96. Alternative Cathode Production Routes.               218
• Table 97. Alternative cathode synthesis routes.     218
• Table 98. Alternative Cathode Production Companies.     219
• Table 99. Recycled cathode materials facilities and capactites. 221
• Table 100. Comparison table of key lithium-ion cathode materials           222
• Table 101. Li-ion battery Binder and conductive additive materials.         224
• Table 102. Li-ion battery Separator materials.         224
• Table 103. Lithium-Ion Cell Energy Density Evolution 2000-2036               225
• Table 104. Anode Technology Comparison for High-Energy Cells               227
• Table 105. Energy Density Technology Roadmap 2025-2036        228
• Table 106. Market Penetration Forecast - High Energy Density Cells (>350 Wh/kg)         230
• Table 107. Silicon-carbon composite anode adoption forecast by application, 2025–2036 (% of cell-level anode mass).    233
• Table 108. PFAS Regulations Impacting Battery Manufacturing 2025-2036         234
• Table 109. PFAS Compounds in Lithium-Ion Battery Production 235
• Table 110. Non-PFAS Cathode Binder Performance Comparison              241
• Table 111. PFAS Electrolyte Additives and Functions          242
• Table 112. Economic Impact of PFAS Elimination by Cell Component ($/kWh) 244
• Table 113. Global Li-ion battery additives market by category, 2025–2036 (US$ billion).            246
• Table 114. Dry-electrode binder alternatives and development status, 2025.   248
• Table 115. Li-ion battery market players.     249
• Table 116. Typical lithium-ion battery recycling process flow.       250
• Table 117. Main feedstock streams that can be recycled for lithium-ion batteries.         251
• Table 118. Comparison of LIB recycling methods. 251
• Table 119. Comparison of conventional and emerging processes for recycling beyond lithium-ion batteries.          265
• Table 120. Advanced Battery Recycling companies             265
• Table 121. Global revenues for Li-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD). 276
• Table 122. Cathode element demand forecast, 2025–2036 (kilotonnes).             295
• Table 123. EV battery pack material demand forecast, selected categories, 2025–2036 (kilotonnes).                297
• Table 124. Anode-less lithium-metal cell benefits.               304
• Table 125. Anode-less lithium-metal cell developers.        305
• Table 126. Hybrid Battery Technologies        307
• Table 127. Applications for Li-metal batteries.         309
• Table 128. Li-metal battery developers         310
• Table 129. Li-S performance characteristics.           312
• Table 130. Comparison of the theoretical energy densities of lithium-sulfur batteries versus other common battery types.           314
• Table 131. Challenges with lithium-sulfur. 315
• Table 132. Li-S advantages and use cases 319
• Table 133. Global revenues for Lithium-sulfur, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).   326
• Table 134. Lithium-sulphur battery product developers.  329
• Table 135. Global revenues for Lithium titanate and niobate batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).  332
• Table 136. Product developers in Lithium titanate and niobate batteries.             336
• Table 137. Comparison of cathode materials.         337
• Table 138.  Layered transition metal oxide cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries.             338
• Table 139. General cycling performance characteristics of common layered transition metal oxide cathode materials.     338
• Table 140. Polyanionic materials for sodium-ion battery cathodes.          339
• Table 141. Comparative analysis of different polyanionic materials.        340
• Table 142.  Common types of Prussian Blue Analogue materials used as cathodes or anodes in sodium-ion batteries.  342
• Table 143. Comparison of Na-ion battery anode materials.            343
• Table 144. Hard Carbon producers for sodium-ion battery anodes.         344
• Table 145. Comparison of carbon materials in sodium-ion battery anodes.       345
• Table 146. Comparison between Natural and Synthetic Graphite.             347
• Table 147. Properties of graphene, properties of competing materials, applications thereof.  350
• Table 148. Comparison of carbon based anodes. 351
• Table 149.  Alloying materials used in sodium-ion batteries.          351
• Table 150. Na-ion electrolyte formulations.              353
• Table 151. Pros and cons compared to other battery types.           353
• Table 152. Cost comparison with Li-ion batteries. 354
• Table 153. Key materials in sodium-ion battery cells.         355
• Table 154. Global revenues for sodium-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).   357
• Table 155. Cost Evolution and Competitiveness.   362
• Table 156. Global revenues for aluminium-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).            373
• Table 157. Product developers in aluminium-ion batteries.            376
• Table 158. Types of solid-state electrolytes.              380
• Table 159. Market segmentation and status for solid-state batteries.      380
• Table 160. Solid Electrolyte Material Comparison.               381
• Table 161.  Typical process chains for manufacturing key components and assembly of solid-state batteries.          381
• Table 162. Comparison between liquid and solid-state batteries.              386
• Table 163. Solid-State Battery Technology Readiness Level (TRL) by Company 2025    387
• Table 164. Automotive OEM Solid-State Battery Programs 2025-2036   391
• Table 165. Limitations of solid-state thin film batteries.    397
• Table 166. Solid-State Battery Market Forecast by Electrolyte Type 2025-2036 398
• Table 167. Cost and Performance Evolution for Solid-state batteries.     400
• Table 168. Solid-state thin-film battery market players.    401
• Table 169. Key Material Properties for Structural Battery Composites     404
• Table 170. Electric Vehicle Impact Analysis - Structural Battery Composites     405
• Table 171. Structural Battery Composites Market Forecast 2025-2036 409
• Table 172. Life Cycle Environmental Impact Comparison (per kg of material)    412
• Table 173. Flexible battery applications and technical requirements.     414
• Table 174. Comparison of Flexible and Traditional Lithium-Ion Batteries               416
• Table 175. Material Choices for Flexible Battery Components.    416
• Table 176. Flexible Li-ion battery prototypes.           423
• Table 177. Thin film vs bulk solid-state batteries.   425
• Table 178. Summary of fiber-shaped lithium-ion batteries.            427
• Table 179. Types of fiber-shaped batteries.                438
• Table 180. Global revenues for flexible batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).             443
• Table 181. Product developers in flexible batteries.             445
• Table 182. Components of transparent batteries. 448
• Table 183. Components of degradable batteries.  452
• Table 184. Product developers in degradable batteries.    454
• Table 185. Main components and properties of different printed battery types.               456
• Table 186. Applications of printed batteries and their physical and electrochemical requirements.  460
• Table 187. 2D and 3D printing techniques. 461
• Table 188. Printing techniques applied to printed batteries.           462
• Table 189. Main components and corresponding electrochemical values of lithium-ion printed batteries.          462
• Table 190. Printing technique, main components and corresponding electrochemical values of printed batteries based on Zn–MnO2 and other battery types.       464
• Table 191. Main 3D Printing techniques for battery manufacturing.         467
• Table 192. Electrode Materials for 3D Printed Batteries.   468
• Table 193. Global revenues for printed batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).             470
• Table 194. Product developers in printed batteries.             472
• Table 195. Advantages and disadvantages of redox flow batteries.            476
• Table 196. Global Redox Flow Battery Market Forecast 2025-2036           477
• Table 197. Comprehensive RFB Chemistry Benchmarking             478
• Table 198. RFB Component Cost Evolution 2025-2036     481
• Table 199. Comparison of different battery types. 484
• Table 200. Summary of main flow battery types.    484
• Table 201. Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB)-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          486
• Table 202. Market players in Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB).        488
• Table 203. Zinc-bromine (ZnBr) flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          490
• Table 204. Market players in Zinc-Bromine Flow Batteries (ZnBr).              492
• Table 205. Polysulfide bromine flow batteries (PSB)-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          493
• Table 206. Iron-chromium (ICB) flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          495
• Table 207. Market players in Iron-chromium (ICB) flow batteries.               497
• Table 208. All-Iron flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.  498
• Table 209. Market players in All-iron Flow Batteries.            499
• Table 210. Zinc-iron (Zn-Fe) flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          500
• Table 211. Market players in Zinc-iron (Zn-Fe) Flow Batteries.       502
• Table 212. Hydrogen-bromine (H-Br) flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          503
• Table 213. Hydrogen-Manganese (H-Mn) flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.         506
• Table 214. Market players in Hydrogen-Manganese (H-Mn) Flow Batteries.         507
• Table 215. Materials in Organic Redox Flow Batteries (ORFB).     508
• Table 216. Key Active species for ORFBs     508
• Table 217. Organic flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.  509
• Table 218. Market players in Organic Redox Flow Batteries (ORFB).         511
• Table 219. Zinc-Cerium Hybrid flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          513
• Table 220. Zinc-Polyiodide Hybrid Flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          515
• Table 221. Zinc-Nickel Hybrid Flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          516
• Table 222. Zinc-Bromine Hybrid Flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          517
• Table 223. Vanadium-Polyhalide Hybrid Flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.         518
• Table 224. Redox flow battery value chain. 520
• Table 225. RFB Application Segment Forecast 2025-2036              525
• Table 226. Global revenues for redox flow batteries, 2018-2036, by type (millions USD).           527
• Table 227. Market Share Evolution. 528
• Table 228. RFB Regional Market Forecast 2025-2036         530
• Table 229. Levelised cost of storage comparison, vanadium RFB vs lithium-ion LFP, by duration (US$/MWh).    533
• Table 230. Global RFB market forecast by chemistry, 2025–2036 (GWh).             536
• Table 231. Global RFB market value forecast by chemistry, 2025–2036 (US$ billion).  537
• Table 232. ZN-based battery product developers. 541
• Table 233. Off-highway battery pack requirements by machine type.      545
• Table 234.Global off-highway battery revenue forecast by segment, 2025–2036 (US$ million).             549
• Table 235. C&I BESS technology mix forecast, 2025–2036 (% of annual GWh deployments).  553
• Table 236. LFP cell cost to US BESS buyer: domestic vs Chinese import, 2026–2031 (US$/kWh).       555
• Table 237. Li-ion LFP C&I BESS system cost breakdown, 2025 and 2036 (US$/kWh, 2-hour system).                556
• Table 238. Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in battery technology.             558
• Table 239. Machine learning approaches.  559
• Table 240. Types of Neural Networks.            560
• Table 241. Companies in materials informatics for batteries.        563
• Table 242. Data Forms for Cell Modelling.  564
• Table 243. Algorithmic Approaches for Different Testing Modes. 565
• Table 244. Companies in AI for cell testing for batteries.   566
• Table 245.Algorithmic Approaches in Manufacturing and Cell Assembly:            567
• Table 246. AI-based battery manufacturing players.            570
• Table 247. Companies in AI for battery diagnostics and management.  573
• Table 248. Algorithmic Approaches and Data Inputs/Outputs.    574
• Table 249. Companies in AI for second-life battery assessment 574
• Table 250. Electrolyte Additives.       580
• Table 251. Cell performance specification.               583
• Table 252. Commercial cell chemistries      584
• Table 253. Drivers and Challenges for Cell-to-pack.            586
• Table 254. Cell-to-pack and cell-to-body designs.               588
• Table 255. Advanced battery pack sensor market by sensor type, 2025–2036 (US$ million).  599
• Table 256. BMS architecture adoption forecast (share of new EV battery packs, %).     599
• Table 257. 3DOM separator. 604
• Table 258. CATL sodium-ion battery characteristics.          664
• Table 259. CHAM sodium-ion battery characteristics.       670
• Table 260. Chasm SWCNT products.             670
• Table 261. Faradion sodium-ion battery characteristics.  719
• Table 262. HiNa Battery sodium-ion battery characteristics.         759
• Table 263. Battery performance test specifications of J. Flex batteries.  781
• Table 264. LiNa Energy battery characteristics.      800
• Table 265. Natrium Energy battery characteristics.              827

 

List of Figures

• Figure 1. Li-ion battery pack demand for XEV (in GWh) 2019-2036.          62
• Figure 2. Li-ion battery market value for XEV (in $B) 2019-2036. 64
• Figure 3. Semi-solid-state battery market forecast, GWh,  by electrolyte types 2019-2036.    71
• Figure 4. Semi-solid-state battery market value ($B) 2019-2036.               73
• Figure 5. Solid-state battery market forecast (GWh) 2019-2036. 74
• Figure 6. Solid-state battery market forecast, GWh, by electrolyte types 2019-2036.  76
• Figure 7. Sodium-ion  battery market forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.             77
• Figure 8. Sodium-ion battery market value ($B) 2019-2036.          79
• Figure 9. BEV car cathode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.      86
• Figure 10. BEV anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036. 88
• Figure 11. BEV anode forecast ($B) 2019-2036.     89
• Figure 12. EV cathode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.               90
• Figure 13. EV Anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.   91
• Figure 14. Advanced anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.  93
• Figure 15. Advanced anode forecast (S$B) 2019-2036.     95
• Figure 16. Salt-E Dog mobile battery.             129
• Figure 17. I.Power Nest - Residential Energy Storage System Solution.   129
• Figure 18. Lithium Cell Design.          146
• Figure 19. Functioning of a lithium-ion battery.       146
• Figure 20. Li-ion battery cell pack.   147
• Figure 21. Li-ion electric vehicle (EV) battery.           150
• Figure 22. SWOT analysis: Li-ion batteries. 154
• Figure 23. Li-ion technology roadmap.         155
• Figure 24. Silicon anode value chain.            157
• Figure 25. Market development timeline.    163
• Figure 26. Silicon Anode Commercialization Timeline.      164
• Figure 27. Silicon anode value chain.            165
• Figure 28. Anode material consumption by type (tonnes).              171
• Figure 29. Anode material consumption by end user market (tonnes).   173
• Figure 30. Ultra-high Nickel Cathode Commercialization Timeline.          191
• Figure 31. Lithium-manganese-rich cathode SWOT analysis.       196
• Figure 32. Li-cobalt structure.             200
• Figure 33.  Li-manganese structure.               202
• Figure 34. LNMO cathode SWOT.      216
• Figure 35. Global Li-ion battery additives market, 2025–2036 (US$ billion)         245
• Figure 36. Li-ion conductive additive market share evolution, 2025–2036           247
• Figure 37. Typical direct, pyrometallurgical, and hydrometallurgical recycling methods for recovery of Li-ion battery active materials. 250
• Figure 38. Flow chart of recycling processes of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs).       253
• Figure 39. Hydrometallurgical recycling flow sheet.             254
• Figure 40. SWOT analysis for Hydrometallurgy Li-ion Battery Recycling.                255
• Figure 41. Umicore recycling flow diagram.              256
• Figure 42. SWOT analysis for Pyrometallurgy Li-ion Battery Recycling.   257
• Figure 43. Schematic of direct recycling process. 258
• Figure 44. SWOT analysis for Direct Li-ion Battery Recycling.        262
• Figure 45. Global revenues for Li-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).  277
• Figure 46. Total EV battery material demand by category, 2025–2036 (kilotonnes).       293
• Figure 47. BEV cathode chemistry mix, 2025 vs 2036.       294
• Figure 48. Cathode active material demand by element, 2025–2036 (kilotonnes).        295
• Figure 49. Silicon adoption in EV anodes, 2025–2036.      296
• Figure 50. Schematic diagram of a Li-metal battery.            299
• Figure 51. SWOT analysis: Lithium-metal batteries.             310
• Figure 52. Schematic diagram of Lithium–sulfur battery.  312
• Figure 53. Lithium-sulfur market value chain.          324
• Figure 54. SWOT analysis: Lithium-sulfur batteries.             326
• Figure 55. Global revenues for Lithium-sulfur, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).    327
• Figure 56. Global revenues for Lithium titanate and niobate batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).  334
• Figure 57. Schematic of Prussian blue analogues (PBA).  341
• Figure 58. Comparison of SEM micrographs of sphere-shaped natural graphite (NG; after several processing steps) and synthetic graphite (SG).       346
• Figure 59. Overview of graphite production, processing and applications.          348
• Figure 60. Schematic diagram of a multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT).   349
• Figure 61. Schematic diagram of a Na-ion battery.               356
• Figure 62. SWOT analysis: Sodium-ion batteries.  357
• Figure 63. Global revenues for sodium-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).    359
• Figure 64.  Schematic of a Na–S battery.      365
• Figure 65. SWOT analysis: Sodium-sulfur batteries.            368
• Figure 66. Saturnose battery chemistry.      369
• Figure 67. SWOT analysis: Aluminium-ion batteries.           372
• Figure 68. Global revenues for aluminium-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).             374
• Figure 69. Schematic illustration of all-solid-state lithium battery.            379
• Figure 70. ULTRALIFE thin film battery.          379
• Figure 71. Examples of applications of thin film batteries.               383
• Figure 72. Capacities and voltage windows of various cathode and anode materials. 384
• Figure 73. Traditional lithium-ion battery (left), solid state battery (right).             385
• Figure 74. Bulk type compared to thin film type SSB.          395
• Figure 75. SWOT analysis: All-solid state batteries.              396
• Figure 76. Ragone plots of diverse batteries and the commonly used electronics powered by flexible batteries.          414
• Figure 77. Various architectures for flexible and stretchable electrochemical energy storage.              417
• Figure 78. Types of flexible batteries.             419
• Figure 79. Flexible batteries on the market.               419
• Figure 80. Materials and design structures in flexible lithium ion batteries.         423
• Figure 81. Flexible/stretchable LIBs with different structures.       425
• Figure 82. a–c) Schematic illustration of coaxial (a), twisted (b), and stretchable (c) LIBs.        428
• Figure 83. a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication of the superstretchy LIB based on an MWCNT/LMO composite fiber and an MWCNT/LTO composite fiber. b,c) Photograph (b) and the schematic illustration (c) of a stretchable fiber-shaped battery under stretching conditions. d) Schematic illustration of the spring-like stretchable LIB. e) SEM images of a fiberat different strains. f) Evolution of specific capacitance with strain. d–f)                429
• Figure 84. Origami disposable battery.          430
• Figure 85. Zn–MnO2 batteries produced by Brightvolt.       432
• Figure 86. Charge storage mechanism of alkaline Zn-based batteries and zinc-ion batteries. 434
• Figure 87. Zn–MnO2 batteries produced by Blue Spark.    435
• Figure 88. Ag–Zn batteries produced by Imprint Energy.    436
• Figure 89.  Wearable self-powered devices.              441
• Figure 90. SWOT analysis: Flexible  batteries.          443
• Figure 91. Global revenues for flexible batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).              444
• Figure 92. Transparent batteries.       447
• Figure 93. SWOT analysis: Transparent batteries.  450
• Figure 94. Degradable batteries.       451
• Figure 95. SWOT analysis: Degradable batteries.   454
• Figure 96. Various applications of printed paper batteries.             455
• Figure 97.Schematic representation of the main components of a battery.         456
• Figure 98. Schematic of a printed battery in a sandwich cell architecture, where the anode and cathode of the battery are stacked together. 458
• Figure 99. Manufacturing Processes for Conventional Batteries (I), 3D Microbatteries (II), and 3D-Printed Batteries (III). 466
• Figure 100. SWOT analysis: Printed batteries.          470
• Figure 101. Global revenues for printed batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).           471
• Figure 102. Scheme of a redox flow battery.              475
• Figure 103. Vanadium Redox Flow Battery schematic.       485
• Figure 104. SWOT analysis: Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB)           487
• Figure 105. Schematic of zinc bromine flow battery energy storage system.       489
• Figure 106. SWOT analysis: Zinc-Bromine Flow Batteries (ZnBr).                492
• Figure 107. SWOT analysis: Iron-chromium (ICB) flow batteries. 494
• Figure 108. SWOT analysis: Iron-chromium (ICB) flow batteries. 496
• Figure 109.  Schematic of All-Iron Redox Flow Batteries.  497
• Figure 110. SWOT analysis: All-iron Flow Batteries.              499
• Figure 111. SWOT analysis: Zinc-iron (Zn-Fe) flow batteries.          502
• Figure 112. Schematic of Hydrogen-bromine flow battery.              503
• Figure 113. SWOT analysis: Hydrogen-bromine (H-Br) flow batteries.      505
• Figure 114. SWOT analysis: Hydrogen-Manganese (H-Mn) flow batteries.            507
• Figure 115. SWOT analysis: Organic redox flow batteries (ORFBs) batteries.      511
• Figure 116. Schematic of zinc-polyiodide redox flow battery (ZIB).            515
• Figure 117. Redox flow batteries applications roadmap.  526
• Figure 118. Global revenues for redox flow batteries, 2018-2036, by type (millions USD).         528
• Figure 119. Levelised cost of storage: vanadium RFB vs lithium-ion LFP by duration, 2026 and 2030.                534
• Figure 120. Global RFB market forecast by chemistry, 2025–2036 (GWh).           535
• Figure 121. Global RFB market value by chemistry, 2025–2036 (US$ billion).    536
• Figure 122. Battery pack capacity range by off-highway machine type    544
• Figure 123. Global off-highway battery demand, 2025–2036 (GWh)         546
• Figure 124. Off-highway battery chemistry mix, 2025 vs 2036      547
• Figure 125. Regional distribution of off-highway battery demand, 2036 548
• Figure 126. Global C&I BESS market by application, 2025–2036 (US$ billion).  550
• Figure 127. Data centre BESS demand by region, 2025–2036 (GWh).      552
• Figure 128. LFP cell cost to US BESS buyer: domestic vs Chinese import, 2026–2031 (US$/kWh).     554
• Figure 129. C&I BESS technology mix, 2025 vs 2036 (% of GWh deployments). 555
• Figure 130. Types of integrated battery packs          585
• Figure 131. Battery pack with a cell-to-pack design and prismatic cells.               586
• Figure 132. Global advanced battery pack sensor market by sensor type, 2025–2036 (US$ million). 598
• Figure 133. 24M battery.         602
• Figure 134. 3DOM battery.     604
• Figure 135. AC biode prototype.        606
• Figure 136. Schematic diagram of liquid metal battery operation.             623
• Figure 137. Ampcera’s all-ceramic dense solid-state electrolyte separator sheets (25 um thickness, 50mm x 100mm size, flexible and defect free, room temperature ionic conductivity ~1 mA/cm).         625
• Figure 138. Amprius battery products.          626
• Figure 139. All-polymer battery schematic.               631
• Figure 140. All Polymer Battery Module.      631
• Figure 141. Resin current collector. 631
• Figure 142. Ateios thin-film, printed battery.             634
• Figure 143. The structure of aluminum-sulfur battery from Avanti Battery.           637
• Figure 144. Containerized NAS® batteries. 640
• Figure 145. 3D printed lithium-ion battery. 649
• Figure 146. Blue Solution module.   650
• Figure 147. TempTraq wearable patch.          652
• Figure 148. Schematic of a fluidized bed reactor which is able to scale up the generation of SWNTs using the CoMoCAT process.              671
• Figure 149. Carhartt X-1 Smart Heated Vest.            677
• Figure 150. Cymbet EnerChip™          681
• Figure 151. E-magy nano sponge structure.              695
• Figure 152. Enerpoly zinc-ion battery.            698
• Figure 153. SoftBattery®.        700
• Figure 154. ASSB All-Solid-State Battery by EGI 300 Wh/kg.           704
• Figure 155. Roll-to-roll equipment working with ultrathin steel substrate.            706
• Figure 156. 40 Ah battery cell.             718
• Figure 157. FDK Corp battery.             721
• Figure 158. 2D paper batteries.          731
• Figure 159. 3D Custom Format paper batteries.     732
• Figure 160. Fuji carbon nanotube products.             733
• Figure 161. Gelion Endure battery.   736
• Figure 162. Gelion GEN3 lithium sulfur batteries.  737
• Figure 163. Grepow flexible battery.                750
• Figure 164. HPB solid-state battery.                758
• Figure 165. HiNa Battery pack for EV.            760
• Figure 166. JAC demo EV powered by a HiNa Na-ion battery.        760
• Figure 167. Nanofiber Nonwoven Fabrics from Hirose.      761
• Figure 168. Hitachi Zosen solid-state battery.          763
• Figure 169. Ilika solid-state batteries.            768
• Figure 170. TAeTTOOz printable battery materials.               772
• Figure 171. Ionic Materials battery cell.        776
• Figure 172. Schematic of Ion Storage Systems solid-state battery structure.     778
• Figure 173. ITEN micro batteries.      780
• Figure 174. Kite Rise’s A-sample sodium-ion battery module.      788
• Figure 175. LiBEST flexible battery.  794
• Figure 176. Li-FUN sodium-ion battery cells.            797
• Figure 177. LiNa Energy battery.        799
• Figure 178. 3D solid-state thin-film battery technology.    802
• Figure 179. Lyten batteries.   808
• Figure 180. Cellulomix production process.              811
• Figure 181. Nanobase versus conventional products.        811
• Figure 182. Nanotech Energy battery.            823
• Figure 183. Hybrid battery powered electrical motorbike concept.           828
• Figure 184. NBD battery.         829
• Figure 185. Schematic illustration of three-chamber system for SWCNH production. 830
• Figure 186. TEM images of carbon nanobrush.       831
• Figure 187. EnerCerachip.     836
• Figure 188. Cambrian battery.            850
• Figure 189. Printed battery.   854
• Figure 190. Prieto Foam-Based 3D Battery.               855
• Figure 191. Printed Energy flexible battery. 858
• Figure 192. ProLogium solid-state battery. 860
• Figure 193. QingTao solid-state batteries.   861
• Figure 194. Schematic of the quinone flow battery.              863
• Figure 195. Sakuú Corporation 3Ah Lithium Metal Solid-state Battery.   872
• Figure 196. Salgenx S3000 seawater flow battery. 873
• Figure 197. Samsung SDI's sixth-generation prismatic batteries.                875
• Figure 198. SES Apollo batteries.      882
• Figure 199. Sionic Energy battery cell.           890
• Figure 200. Solid Power battery pouch cell.               893
• Figure 201. Stora Enso lignin battery materials.      899
• Figure 202.TeraWatt Technology solid-state battery             914
• Figure 203. Zeta Energy 20 Ah cell.  953
• Figure 204. Zoolnasm batteries.        955

 

 

 

 

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