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The Global Green Hydrogen Market 2027-2037

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  • Published: September 2026
  • Pages: 521
  • Tables: 219
  • Figures: 53

 

The global green hydrogen market is navigating its most consequential transition since the sector's emergence: a structural shift from speculative ambition to selective commercial reality. After the investment surge of 2021–2022 and the brutal rationalisation of 2024–2025, the market in 2026 is defined by discipline rather than optimism — and by a sharp divergence between the applications and geographies that are genuinely working and those that have definitively failed.

Green hydrogen production crossed 1 million tonnes per year for the first time in 2025, up sixfold from 270,000 tonnes in 2021, with global installed electrolyser capacity surpassing 3 GW at mid-year. These are genuine milestones. But they sit alongside a 25% downward revision in the IEA's 2030 project pipeline (from 49 Mt to 37 Mt in a single year), a collapse of binding offtake agreements (only 1–5% of announced capacity), and manufacturer distress that has claimed Nikola Corporation (bankrupt, liquidated), Universal Hydrogen, Heliogen, and Green Hydrogen Systems, while placing Nel Hydrogen, Plug Power, McPhy Energy, and Fusion Fuel under severe financial pressure.

The policy environment has bifurcated catastrophically. The US eliminated the $3/kg Section 45V tax credit under the One Big Beautiful Bill Act, effectively closing the American market — Nel's $400M Michigan gigafactory was permanently cancelled, Plug Power abandoned its Antwerp facility in August 2026, and Air Products wrote off $3.1 billion on its Massena plant. Europe simultaneously strengthened its approach: the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism became financially operational in January 2026, adding approximately €0.85–1.10/kg to grey hydrogen import costs, while the EU Hydrogen Bank's second auction cleared at a record-low subsidy bid of €0.37/kg. China continues state-directed deployment, controlling 65% of global installed electrolyser capacity.

Recent months have produced the sector's most important commercial confirmations. NEOM's 2.2 GW green ammonia complex completed construction in August 2026 — the world's first infrastructure-scale green hydrogen project. RWE's Lingen 300 MW project delivered Europe's first commercial green hydrogen through 120 kilometres of pipeline to Evonik's Marl chemical park. The Siemens Energy electrolyser business is being spun out as Omterra — creating the best-capitalised Western PEM manufacturer. Hive Hydrogen selected Topsoe's SOEC technology for the $5.8 billion Coega project in South Africa, the first GW-scale SOEC commercial commitment. And Ballard Power Systems acquired GeoPura for £275 million, confirming the commercial value of hydrogen-as-a-service models.

The path forward is selective but confirmed: refining and industrial hydrogen replacement under binding EU mandates, maritime ammonia under IMO 2027 framework compliance, green steel in premium-buyer markets, and AI/data centre fuel cells as an emerging creditworthy offtake category. 

The Global Green Hydrogen Market 2027–2037 is a definitive 521-page industry analysis of the green hydrogen sector,. The report provides the most comprehensive current assessment of a market that has undergone structural rationalisation, with clear analysis of what has succeeded commercially and what has failed.

The report covers the full green hydrogen value chain — from production economics and electrolyser technology through storage and transport infrastructure to end-use applications in refining, ammonia, steel, maritime fuel, and emerging data centre power.

Report contents include:

  • Executive Summary — market overview, cancellation wave analysis, policy divergence (US collapse, EU mandates, China dominance), cost competitiveness, demand hierarchy, and 2027–2037 forecasts including application demand breakdown and infrastructure investment requirements
  • Introduction and Hydrogen Classification — colour taxonomy, global energy context, hydrogen economy overview, production methods, and the current vs. projected supply mix
  • Global Market Analysis — detailed sections on energy demand, cost competitiveness by region, industrial applications (refining, ammonia, steel, maritime, chemicals, aviation), electrolyser technology and manufacturing realities, carbon pricing mechanisms including full CBAM analysis, the offtake crisis quantification, technology maturity assessment, market map, global production data, demand forecasts to 2037, investment flow analysis, and market concentration
  • Green Hydrogen Projects Table — status of all major global projects updated to September 2026, including operational (NEOM, Lingen, Normand'Hy, Petrobrazi), under construction (Stegra), development stage (Coega, HNH Chile, Saemangeum), and cancelled (Air Products Louisiana, HyDeal Ambition, Nel Michigan)
  • Electrolyser Technologies — comprehensive technical and commercial chapters on alkaline water electrolysis, PEM electrolysis, AEM electrolysis (including Power to Hydrogen Antwerp milestone), SOEC (Coega/Topsoe selection), novel technologies (E-TAC, natural hydrogen, PCE), balance of plant costs, manufacturing capacities, and global market revenues
  • Hydrogen Storage and Transport — pipeline infrastructure, maritime shipping (ammonia vs. liquid hydrogen), compression and liquefaction, underground storage, and market players
  • Hydrogen Utilisation — fuel cells (PEMFC, SOFC), fuel cell vehicles (light-duty collapse, heavy-duty uncertain future), aviation, ammonia production and maritime fuel, e-methanol economics, green steel (H-DRI economics, Stegra proof-of-concept, regional development), power and heat generation, maritime propulsion technologies, fuel cell trains, and AI/data centre applications
  • Company Profiles — 170 companies across electrolyser manufacturers, project developers, industrial gas companies, storage and transport players, component suppliers, and end-use sector companies. Companies profiled include ABO Wind/ABO Energy, Adani Green Energy, Advanced Ionics, Aemetis Inc., Agfa-Gevaert NV, Air Products and Chemicals, Aker Horizons ASA, Alchemr Inc., Alleima, Alleo Energy, Arcadia eFuels, AREVA H2Gen, Asahi Kasei, Atmonia, Atome, Avantium, AvCarb, Avoxt B.V., BASF, Battolyser Systems, Blastr Green Steel, Bloom Energy, Boson Energy, BP, Brineworks, Caplyzer, Carbon280, Carbon Sink LLC, Cavendish Renewable Technology, CellMo, Ceres Power Holdings, Chevron Corporation, CHARBONE Hydrogen, Chiyoda Corporation, Cockerill Jingli Hydrogen, Convion, Cummins Inc., C-Zero, Cipher Neutron, De Nora, Dimensional Energy, Domsjö Fabriker AB, Dynelectro ApS, Elcogen AS, Electric Hydrogen, elementarhy, Elogen H2, Enapter, Energy B, ENEOS Corporation, Equatic and more.....

 

 

 

 

 

 

1             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY            26

  • 1.1        Market Overview: A Sector in Transition      26
  • 1.2        The Reality Check: Project Cancellations and Market Consolidation      26
  • 1.3        Policy and Regulatory Landscape: Diverging Trajectories 27
    • 1.3.1    United States 27
    • 1.3.2    European Union           27
    • 1.3.3    China  27
  • 1.4        Market Economics: The Cost Competitiveness Challenge              28
  • 1.5        Demand Picture: Industrial Applications Lead, New Markets Struggle    28
    • 1.5.1    Strong Adoption - Existing Industrial Applications 28
    • 1.5.2    Struggling Adoption - New Applications       28
  • 1.6        Regional Market Dynamics: Import-Export Imbalances Emerging             29
  • 1.7        Market Forecast 2027-2037 29
    • 1.7.1    Market Size      29
    • 1.7.2    Production Volume    29
    • 1.7.3    Key Applications by 2037 (Demand Breakdown)    30
    • 1.7.4    Infrastructure Investment Requirements (2025–2037)      32
  • 1.8        Electrolyzer Technology and Manufacturing             33
    • 1.8.1    Market structure (2026–2027)            33
    • 1.8.2    Consolidation trajectory         34
    • 1.8.3    AI integration delivering operational gains  34
  • 1.9        Investment Outlook   34
  • 1.10     Critical Challenges Facing the Sector            35
  • 1.11     Outlook             37

 

2             INTRODUCTION          38

  • 2.1        Hydrogen classification          38
    • 2.1.1    Hydrogen colour shades        39
  • 2.2        Global energy demand and consumption  39
  • 2.3        The hydrogen economy and production       40
    • 2.3.1    The Project Cancellation Wave (2024-2025)            43
  • 2.4        Removing CO₂ emissions from hydrogen production          43
  • 2.5        The Economics of Green Hydrogen 44
    • 2.5.1    Cost Gaps and Market Imperatives 44
      • 2.5.1.1 The Cost Competitiveness Challenge: Reality vs. Expectations   44
        • 2.5.1.1.1           The Cost Reduction Disappointment — and Why It Differs by Market:    44
    • 2.5.2    Hard-to-Abate Sectors             45
      • 2.5.2.1 Market Reality: Industrial Replacement vs. New Applications      45
        • 2.5.2.1.1           Where Green Hydrogen IS Working 46
        • 2.5.2.1.2           Where Green Hydrogen IS NOT Working      46
    • 2.5.3    Steel Production          46
      • 2.5.3.1 Steel Sector Update  47
        • 2.5.3.1.1           Projects Advancing    47
        • 2.5.3.1.2           Projects Delayed or Restructured (2025–2026)      47
    • 2.5.4    Ammonia Production               48
      • 2.5.4.1 The Maritime Fuel Opportunity: Ammonia as Hydrogen Carrier   49
        • 2.5.4.1.1           IMO Net-Zero Framework      49
        • 2.5.4.1.2           Development Status 49
        • 2.5.4.1.3           Fertiliser sector (parallel track)          50
        • 2.5.4.1.4           2037 Projection            50
    • 2.5.5    Chemical Industry and Refining        50
      • 2.5.5.1 European Refiners: The Unexpected Green Hydrogen Leaders    51
    • 2.5.6    Electrolyzer Technologies      52
      • 2.5.6.1 2025–2026 Electrolyser Market Reality: Overcapacity, Consolidation, and Structural Reorganisation             52
        • 2.5.6.1.1           Supply Chain Fragility              54
      • 2.5.6.2 Alkaline Water Electrolyzers: Proven Technology Dominates Market        55
        • 2.5.6.2.1           Why AWE dominates 55
        • 2.5.6.2.2           Key limitations and current mitigation approaches              56
        • 2.5.6.2.3           Innovation advancing AWE competitiveness            56
      • 2.5.6.3 Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyzers: Superior Performance, Limited Adoption  57
        • 2.5.6.3.1           The PEM Paradox        57
        • 2.5.6.3.2           Why PEM Underperformed Market Expectations   57
        • 2.5.6.3.3           Iridium bottleneck — 2026 breakthrough pending 58
        • 2.5.6.3.4           PEM's genuine market position in 2025–2026         58
        • 2.5.6.3.5           PEM's Niche Applications     59
      • 2.5.6.4 Solid Oxide Electrolyzers: High Efficiency, High Risk, Distant Commercialization           60
        • 2.5.6.4.1           Reality Check: SOEC Crosses a Commercial Threshold   60
        • 2.5.6.4.2           Why Coega selected SOEC over AWE            60
        • 2.5.6.4.3           Why Alkaline Won Over SOEC            62
        • 2.5.6.4.4           The changing calculus post-2026    63
      • 2.5.6.5 Next-Generation Technologies           63
        • 2.5.6.5.1           Anion Exchange Membrane Electrolyzers: Bridging the Gap — Crossed a Threshold in 2026    64
        • 2.5.6.5.2           Novel Approaches: Beyond Conventional Electrolysis       65
        • 2.5.6.5.3           Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Water Splitting            66
        • 2.5.6.5.4           Medium-Temperature Steam Electrolysis (200–400°C)     67
        • 2.5.6.5.5           Proton Ceramic Electrolysis (PCE)  67
        • 2.5.6.5.6           Biological/Microbial Hydrogen Production 67
        • 2.5.6.5.7           Plasma-Assisted Electrolysis              67
        • 2.5.6.5.8           Market Reality               67
    • 2.5.7    The Path Forward        68
      • 2.5.7.1 The New Reality: What Changed       68
      • 2.5.7.2 Implementation Pathways by Application  70
        • 2.5.7.2.1           Near-Term Success Cases (2027-2030)      70
        • 2.5.7.2.2           Medium-Term Opportunities (2030-2037)  71
        • 2.5.7.2.3           Long-Term/Uncertain (Post-2037)   72
        • 2.5.7.2.4           Failed Applications (Effectively Abandoned)            73
  • 2.6        Hydrogen value chain              74
    • 2.6.1    Production       75
      • 2.6.1.1 Production Infrastructure Reality (2025-2026)        75
    • 2.6.2    Transport and storage              77
      • 2.6.2.1 Hydrogen Transport: The $80-120 Billion Infrastructure Gap          77
        • 2.6.2.1.1           Current Transport Infrastructure       77
      • 2.6.2.2 Infrastructure Investment Requirements (2025-2037)      79
      • 2.6.2.3 Critical Challenges    79
      • 2.6.2.4 Hydrogen Storage: Options and Costs          80
        • 2.6.2.4.1           Storage Methods and Current Status             80
    • 2.6.3    Utilization         81
      • 2.6.3.1 Current Utilization by Sector                83
        • 2.6.3.1.1           Existing Industrial Applications — Green H₂ Penetration Accelerating     83
  • 2.7        National hydrogen initiatives, policy and regulation             85
    • 2.7.1    Country focus: Canada          89
    • 2.7.2    Country focus: Japan               90
  • 2.8        Hydrogen certification              91
  • 2.9        Carbon pricing              92
    • 2.9.1    Overview           92
      • 2.9.1.1 The Carbon Price Threshold for Green Hydrogen   92
    • 2.9.2    Global Carbon Pricing Landscape   92
      • 2.9.2.1 High Carbon Pricing — Driving Commercial Green H₂ Adoption  93
        • 2.9.2.1.1           CBAM — Now Operational    93
      • 2.9.2.2 Moderate Carbon Pricing (Insufficient for Green H2)           94
        • 2.9.2.2.1           China National ETS    94
        • 2.9.2.2.2           California Cap-and-Trade      95
        • 2.9.2.2.3           Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) — Northeast USA       95
        • 2.9.2.2.4           South Korea K-ETS      96
      • 2.9.2.3 No/Minimal Carbon Pricing (Green H₂ Requires Full Subsidies or Mandate)       96
        • 2.9.2.3.1           United States (Federal)            96
        • 2.9.2.3.2           Canada             97
        • 2.9.2.3.3           Australia           99
        • 2.9.2.3.4           Middle East (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Oman)      99
        • 2.9.2.3.5           Japan  100
        • 2.9.2.3.6           South Korea    101
    • 2.9.3    Carbon Pricing Mechanisms Comparison 101
    • 2.9.4    The "Carbon Price + Mandate + Subsidy" Trinity     102
      • 2.9.4.1 2025–2026 Lesson: All Three Required — The Policy Trinity Confirmed  102
    • 2.9.5    Carbon Pricing Projections and Green Hydrogen Implications     104
      • 2.9.5.1 Global Carbon Price Scenarios          105
    • 2.9.6    Carbon Pricing Alternatives and Supplements        106
  • 2.10     Market challenges      109
    • 2.10.1 The Offtake Crisis (Most Critical Challenge)             112
    • 2.10.2 The Infrastructure Chicken-and-Egg               114
    • 2.10.3 Cost Competitiveness - The Persistent Gap              114
    • 2.10.4 Technology Maturity Gap       115
  • 2.11     Industry developments 2020-2026 117
  • 2.12     Market map    132
  • 2.13     Global hydrogen production 134
    • 2.13.1 Industrial applications            135
    • 2.13.2 Hydrogen energy          135
      • 2.13.2.1            Stationary use               135
      • 2.13.2.2            Hydrogen for mobility               136
    • 2.13.3 Current Annual H2 Production           137
      • 2.13.3.1            Global Hydrogen Production: Reality vs. Ambition               137
      • 2.13.3.2            Regional Production Patterns and Methods              137
    • 2.13.4 Leading Green Hydrogen Projects and Operational Status              138
    • 2.13.5 The Project Cancellation Wave          141
    • 2.13.6 Hydrogen production processes       143
      • 2.13.6.1            Regional Variation in Production Methods 145
      • 2.13.6.2            The Capacity Deployment Gap          146
      • 2.13.6.3            Production Cost Drivers by Technology        147
      • 2.13.6.4            Geographic Cost Competitiveness 147
      • 2.13.6.5            Hydrogen as by-product         148
      • 2.13.6.6            Reforming        149
        • 2.13.6.6.1        SMR wet method         149
        • 2.13.6.6.2        Oxidation of petroleum fractions     149
        • 2.13.6.6.3        Coal gasification         149
      • 2.13.6.7            Reforming or coal gasification with CO2 capture and storage      149
      • 2.13.6.8            Steam reforming of biomethane       150
      • 2.13.6.9            Water electrolysis       151
      • 2.13.6.10         The "Power-to-Gas" concept                152
      • 2.13.6.11         Fuel cell stack               153
      • 2.13.6.12         Electrolysers   154
      • 2.13.6.13         Other   155
        • 2.13.6.13.1     Plasma technologies 155
        • 2.13.6.13.2     Photosynthesis            156
        • 2.13.6.13.3     Bacterial or biological processes     156
        • 2.13.6.13.4     Oxidation (biomimicry)           157
    • 2.13.7 Production costs         158
  • 2.14     Global hydrogen demand forecasts               159
    • 2.14.1 Green and Blue Hydrogen Penetration          160
    • 2.14.2 Demand by End-Use Application      161
    • 2.14.3 Green Hydrogen Demand by Application    163
    • 2.14.4 Regional Demand Patterns   164
    • 2.14.5 Import-Export Dynamics and Trade Flows  165
    • 2.14.6 Demand Growth Drivers and Constraints   166
    • 2.14.7 Market Size and Revenue Forecasts: Recalibrating the Hydrogen Economy        168
      • 2.14.7.1            Total Hydrogen Market Revenue        168
      • 2.14.7.2            Electrolyzer Equipment Market          169
      • 2.14.7.3            Infrastructure Investment Requirements    171
      • 2.14.7.4            Green Hydrogen Market Revenue by Application   172
      • 2.14.7.5            Investment Flow Analysis      172
      • 2.14.7.6            Geographic Distribution of Investment         173
    • 2.14.8 Market Concentration and Competitive Dynamics              174

 

3             GREEN HYDROGEN PRODUCTION 177

  • 3.1        Overview           177
  • 3.2        Green hydrogen projects        177
  • 3.3        Motivation for use       180
  • 3.4        Decarbonization          181
  • 3.5        Comparative analysis              182
  • 3.6        Role in energy transition         182
  • 3.7        Renewable energy sources   183
    • 3.7.1    Wind power     183
    • 3.7.2    Solar Power     184
    • 3.7.3    Nuclear              184
    • 3.7.4    Capacities       184
    • 3.7.5    Costs  184
  • 3.8        SWOT analysis              185

 

4             ELECTROLYZER TECHNOLOGIES    187

  • 4.1        Introduction    187
    • 4.1.1    Technical Specifications and Performance Evolution         187
    • 4.1.2    Chinese Manufacturing Leadership                189
    • 4.1.3    Architecture and Design Evolution  193
    • 4.1.4    Cost Structure and Economic Competitiveness    194
    • 4.1.5    Future Outlook and Development Trajectory            195
    • 4.1.6    Market Share Projections       195
  • 4.2        Main types       198
  • 4.3        Technology Selection Decision Factors       198
  • 4.4        Balance of Plant          199
    • 4.4.1    Components, Costs, and Commercial Significance            201
    • 4.4.2    Power Electronics: The Largest Single BoP Cost     202
    • 4.4.3    Water Treatment          202
    • 4.4.4    Gas Purification and Compression 203
    • 4.4.5    Thermal Management             203
    • 4.4.6    AI Integration in BoP Operations (2025–2026)         203
  • 4.5        Characteristics             204
  • 4.6        Advantages and disadvantages        206
  • 4.7        Electrolyzer market    206
    • 4.7.1    Market trends 206
    • 4.7.2    Market landscape       209
      • 4.7.2.1 Market Structure Evolution   209
        • 4.7.2.1.1           2026 Status — Three Confirmed Tiers           209
    • 4.7.3    Innovations     211
    • 4.7.4    Cost challenges           212
    • 4.7.5    Why Electrolyzers Differ from Solar/Batteries           212
    • 4.7.6    Scale-up            214
    • 4.7.7    Manufacturing challenges    215
    • 4.7.8    Market opportunity and outlook        216
      • 4.7.8.1 The data center upside — the most significant new demand variable     218
  • 4.8        Alkaline water electrolyzers (AWE)  219
    • 4.8.1    Technology description           219
    • 4.8.2    AWE plant        220
    • 4.8.3    Components and materials 221
    • 4.8.4    Costs  222
    • 4.8.5    Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) from AWE        223
    • 4.8.6    Companies     225
  • 4.9        Anion exchange membrane electrolyzers (AEMEL)               228
    • 4.9.1    Technology description           228
    • 4.9.2    Technical Specifications - Lab vs. Demonstration vs. Target          228
    • 4.9.3    AEMEL plant   229
    • 4.9.4    Components and materials 231
      • 4.9.4.1 Catalysts          232
      • 4.9.4.2 Anion exchange membranes (AEMs)              232
      • 4.9.4.3 Materials           233
    • 4.9.5    Costs  235
      • 4.9.5.1 Current Cost Structure            235
      • 4.9.5.2 Performance and Cost Positioning 236
      • 4.9.5.3 Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) from AMEL      237
      • 4.9.5.4 Cost Reduction Pathways      237
    • 4.9.6    Companies     238
  • 4.10     Proton exchange membrane electrolyzers (PEMEL)             240
    • 4.10.1 Technology description           240
    • 4.10.2 The Iridium Bottleneck             241
      • 4.10.2.1            Ultra-Low Iridium Technology Advancing    243
    • 4.10.3 PEMEL plant   243
    • 4.10.4 Components and materials 244
      • 4.10.4.1            Membranes    245
      • 4.10.4.2            Advanced PEMEL stack designs       245
      • 4.10.4.3            Plug-and-Play & Customizable PEMEL Systems     246
      • 4.10.4.4            PEMELs and proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)     247
    • 4.10.5 Costs  248
      • 4.10.5.1            Current Cost Structure            248
      • 4.10.5.2            Cost Reduction Pathways      249
    • 4.10.6 Companies     250
  • 4.11     Solid oxide water electrolyzers (SOEC)         253
    • 4.11.1 Technology description           253
    • 4.11.2 Technical Performance - Theoretical vs. Demonstrated Reality   254
    • 4.11.3 Why SOEC Cannot Compete - Economic Reality   255
    • 4.11.4 SOEC plant     256
    • 4.11.5 Components and materials 257
      • 4.11.5.1            External process heat               258
      • 4.11.5.2            Clean Syngas Production      258
      • 4.11.5.3            Nuclear power               259
      • 4.11.5.4            SOEC and SOFC cells              259
        • 4.11.5.4.1        Tubular cells   259
        • 4.11.5.4.2        Planar cells      260
      • 4.11.5.5            SOEC Electrolyte         260
    • 4.11.6 Costs  261
      • 4.11.6.1            Current Cost Structure            261
      • 4.11.6.2            Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) from SOEC     262
    • 4.11.7 Companies     264
  • 4.12     Other electrolyzer types          267
    • 4.12.1 Overview           267
    • 4.12.2 CO₂ electrolysis            268
      • 4.12.2.1            Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction       269
      • 4.12.2.2            Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction Catalysts 270
      • 4.12.2.3            Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction Technologies        270
      • 4.12.2.4            Low-Temperature Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction              271
      • 4.12.2.5            High-Temperature Solid Oxide Electrolyzers              272
      • 4.12.2.6            Cost     273
      • 4.12.2.7            Challenges      273
      • 4.12.2.8            Coupling H₂ and Electrochemical CO₂          274
      • 4.12.2.9            Products           275
    • 4.12.3 Seawater electrolysis               275
      • 4.12.3.1            Direct Seawater vs Brine (Chlor-Alkali) Electrolysis              276
      • 4.12.3.2            Key Challenges & Limitations             276
    • 4.12.4 Protonic Ceramic Electrolyzers (PCE)           278
    • 4.12.5 Microbial Electrolysis Cells (MEC)   279
    • 4.12.6 Photoelectrochemical Cells (PEC)  280
    • 4.12.7 E-TAC Electrolysis (Electrochemical-Thermally Activated Chemical)       281
    • 4.12.8 Companies     282
  • 4.13     Costs  282
  • 4.14     Water and land use for green hydrogen production              283
    • 4.14.1 Water Consumption Reality 284
    • 4.14.2 Land Requirements Reality  285
  • 4.15     Electrolyzer manufacturing capacities         285
  • 4.16     Global Market Revenues        287

 

5             HYDROGEN STORAGE AND TRANSPORT    290

  • 5.1        Market overview           290
  • 5.2        Hydrogen transport methods              291
    • 5.2.1    Pipeline transportation           293
      • 5.2.1.1 Current Infrastructure Reality             293
      • 5.2.1.2 Natural Gas Pipeline Repurposing - The Failed Promise   293
      • 5.2.1.3 Pipeline Economics and Project Viability    294
    • 5.2.2    Road or rail transport                295
    • 5.2.3    Maritime transportation         295
      • 5.2.3.1 Ammonia vs. Liquid Hydrogen Shipping - The Decisive Battle       296
      • 5.2.3.2 Ammonia Shipping Infrastructure Requirements   296
      • 5.2.3.3 Ammonia Cracking - The Critical Bottleneck            297
    • 5.2.4    On-board-vehicle transport 297
  • 5.3        Hydrogen compression, liquefaction, storage         298
    • 5.3.1    Storage Technology Overview and Economics        298
    • 5.3.2    Solid storage  299
    • 5.3.3    Liquid storage on support      299
    • 5.3.4    Underground storage               300
      • 5.3.4.1 Salt Cavern Storage - Detailed Assessment              300
      • 5.3.4.2 Alternative Underground Storage Options  301
    • 5.3.5    Subsea Hydrogen Storage     301
  • 5.4        Market players               302

 

6             HYDROGEN UTILIZATION      306

  • 6.1        Hydrogen Fuel Cells  306
    • 6.1.1    Market overview           306
    • 6.1.2    Critical Market Failure - Light-Duty Vehicles             307
    • 6.1.3    Why FCEVs failed        307
    • 6.1.4    PEM fuel cells (PEMFCs)        308
      • 6.1.4.1 2026 market development: Data centre/AI power demand             308
    • 6.1.5    Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)             309
    • 6.1.6    Alternative fuel cells  310
  • 6.2        Alternative fuel production   310
    • 6.2.1    Solid Biofuels 311
    • 6.2.2    Liquid Biofuels              311
    • 6.2.3    Gaseous Biofuels       312
    • 6.2.4    Conventional Biofuels             312
    • 6.2.5    Advanced Biofuels     312
    • 6.2.6    Feedstocks      313
    • 6.2.7    Production of biodiesel and other biofuels 314
    • 6.2.8    Renewable diesel        315
    • 6.2.9    Biojet and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF)   316
    • 6.2.10 Electrofuels (E-fuels, power-to-gas/liquids/fuels) 318
      • 6.2.10.1            Hydrogen electrolysis               322
      • 6.2.10.2            eFuel production facilities, current and planned   324
  • 6.3        Hydrogen Vehicles      328
    • 6.3.1    Market overview           328
    • 6.3.2    Light-Duty FCEV Market Collapse    329
    • 6.3.3    Manufacturer Exits and Remaining Players                330
    • 6.3.4    Refueling Infrastructure Collapse    331
    • 6.3.5    Heavy-Duty Hydrogen Trucks - Uncertain Future   332
    • 6.3.6    Heavy-duty FCEV market outlook    334
  • 6.4        Aviation              334
    • 6.4.1    Market overview           334
  • 6.5        Ammonia production               334
    • 6.5.1    Market overview           334
    • 6.5.2    Current Market Structure       337
    • 6.5.3    Drivers of Green Ammonia Adoption             337
    • 6.5.4    Maritime Fuel - The Game Changer 339
    • 6.5.5    Ammonia vs. methanol for maritime              339
    • 6.5.6    Decarbonisation of ammonia production  340
    • 6.5.7    Green ammonia synthesis methods              341
      • 6.5.7.1 Haber-Bosch process              341
      • 6.5.7.2 Biological nitrogen fixation   342
      • 6.5.7.3 Electrochemical production                342
      • 6.5.7.4 Chemical looping processes               342
    • 6.5.8    Green Ammonia Production Costs 342
    • 6.5.9    Blue ammonia              344
      • 6.5.9.1 Blue ammonia projects           344
    • 6.5.10 Chemical energy storage       345
      • 6.5.10.1            Ammonia fuel cells    345
      • 6.5.10.2            Marine fuel      346
  • 6.6        Methanol production                349
    • 6.6.1    Market overview           349
      • 6.6.1.1 Current Market Structure       349
    • 6.6.2    E-Methanol Economics          350
    • 6.6.3    Maritime methanol vs. ammonia competition        351
    • 6.6.4    Maritime Methanol vs. Ammonia Competition:      352
    • 6.6.5    Methanol-to gasoline technology     352
      • 6.6.5.1 Production processes              353
        • 6.6.5.1.1           Anaerobic digestion  354
        • 6.6.5.1.2           Biomass gasification 354
        • 6.6.5.1.3           Power to Methane       355
  • 6.7        Steelmaking   356
    • 6.7.1    Market overview           356
    • 6.7.2    Current Steel Production Methods  357
      • 6.7.2.1 H-DRI process               357
      • 6.7.2.2 H-DRI Process Overview        358
    • 6.7.3    Green Steel Production Costs and Economics       358
    • 6.7.4    Regional Green Steel Development 359
    • 6.7.5    Comparative analysis              361
      • 6.7.5.1 BF-BOF vs. H-DRI + EAF - Comprehensive Comparison   361
    • 6.7.6    Hydrogen Direct Reduced Iron (DRI)              362
    • 6.7.7    Green Steel Market Demand and Willingness-to-Pay          363
  • 6.8        Power & heat generation         365
    • 6.8.1    Market overview           365
      • 6.8.1.1 Why Hydrogen Failed in Power Sector           365
    • 6.8.2    Power generation        365
    • 6.8.3    Economics of Hydrogen Power          366
    • 6.8.4    Heat Generation          366
      • 6.8.4.1 Building Heating with Hydrogen - Failed Application           367
  • 6.9        Maritime           368
    • 6.9.1    Market overview           368
    • 6.9.2    IMO Regulatory Framework - The Demand Driver  369
    • 6.9.3    Ammonia vs. Methanol for Maritime - Technology Competition  370
    • 6.9.4    Maritime Ammonia Infrastructure Requirements  371
    • 6.9.5    Critical bottleneck      372
    • 6.9.6    Ammonia Marine Engines and Fuel Cells    372
      • 6.9.6.1 MAN Energy Solutions             373
      • 6.9.6.2 Viking Energy ShipFC project (Norway)         373
      • 6.9.6.3 Toxicity management — the primary technical challenge 373
  • 6.10     Fuel cell trains              374
    • 6.10.1 Market overview           374
  • 6.11     AI and Data Centers  375

 

7             COMPANY PROFILES                377 (170 company profiles)

 

8             APPENDIX        513

  • 8.1        RESEARCH METHODOLOGY              513

 

9             REFERENCES 515

 

List of Tables

  • Table 1. Green hydrogen demand 2027-2037.         32
  • Table 2. Infrastructure Investment Requirements (2025–2037)   32
  • Table 3. Electrolyzer Technology System prices (2026 benchmarks and trajectory to 2037):   33
  • Table 4. Hydrogen colour shades, Technology, cost, and CO2 emissions.           39
  • Table 5. Current and projected hydrogen demand by application (2025, 2030, 2037)  41
  • Table 6. Overview of hydrogen production methods.          42
  • Table 7. Current Cost Reality (2025–2026) 44
  • Table 8. 2025–2026 Installation Cost Breakdown (non-China)     45
  • Table 9. Economic reality Green Steel           48
  • Table 10. Cost trajectory (ammonia maritime fuel, 2025–2037)  50
  • Table 11. Cost Competitiveness Timeline   52
  • Table 12. Electrolyzer Manufacturing Overcapacity (2025–2026) 52
  • Table 13. Electrolyzer Manufacturer viability assessment               53
  • Table 14. Current commercial specifications (2025–2026) Alkaline Water Electrolyzers             55
  • Table 15. AWE cost trajectory             56
  • Table 16. PEM technology specifications (confirmed commercial systems)       58
  • Table 17. PEM Cost trajectory revised (2026–2037)             58
  • Table 18. Major PEM projects operational or under construction (2025–2026)  59
  • Table 19. SOEC technology specifications (2026 commercial and demonstration systems)   61
  • Table 20. The economic case against SOEC through 2026              62
  • Table 21. AEM electrolysers 2025–2026 status       64
  • Table 22. AEM timeline            65
  • Table 23. Production Cost Reality by Region (2025–2026, updated)         76
  • Table 24. Pipelines — the cheapest large-scale transport option               77
  • Table 25. Maritime Shipping — ammonia confirmed, liquid hydrogen niche        78
  • Table 26. Transport cost comparison (2025–2026)               78
  • Table 27. Infrastructure Investment Requirements               79
  • Table 28. Hydrogen Storage Methods            80
  • Table 29. Utilisation summary table (2025–2037): 85
  • Table 30. National Hydrogen Strategy Assessment              86
  • Table 31. Carbon price required for green H₂ to reach cost parity with grey (no other support)               92
  • Table 32. European Union ETS            93
  • Table 33. Carbon Pricing Systems and Green Hydrogen Impact  101
  • Table 34. Policy model comparison 103
  • Table 35. EU Carbon Pricing Trajectory and Green Hydrogen Gap Closure (Updated, Extended to 2037)                104
  • Table 36. Realistic Scenario (Current Policies Maintained — Base Case, 50–60% probability)               105
  • Table 37. Market challenges in the hydrogen economy and production technologies. 109
  • Table 38. Challenge Resolution Pathways and Requirements       110
  • Table 39. Market Challenges by Stakeholder Impact           111
  • Table 40. Challenge Severity by Application Sector              111
  • Table 41. Regional offtake security comparison     113
  • Table 42. Solutions working vs. failing           113
  • Table 43. Investment Required vs. Committed        114
  • Table 44. Cost Gap Evolution and Projections         114
  • Table 45. Technology Readiness vs. Market Requirements (Updated September 2026)              115
  • Table 46. Green hydrogen industry developments 2020-2026.    117
  • Table 47. Market map for hydrogen technology and production. 132
  • Table 48. Global Hydrogen Production Overview   134
  • Table 49. Industrial applications of hydrogen.         135
  • Table 50. Hydrogen energy markets and applications.       136
  • Table 51. Global Hydrogen Production Overview   137
  • Table 52. Global Hydrogen Production by Method and Region      138
  • Table 53. Green Hydrogen Production Capacity - Top Projects     139
  • Table 54. Cancelled Major Green Hydrogen Projects           142
  • Table 55. Hydrogen production processes and stage of development.   143
  • Table 56. Hydrogen Production Methods - Technical and Economic Comparison (2024)           145
  • Table 57. Regional Production Method Mix (2024) 145
  • Table 58. Electrolyzer Capacity - Installed vs. Under Construction vs. Announced         146
  • Table 59. Production Cost Drivers by Method (2024)          147
  • Table 60. Green Hydrogen Production Cost by Region (2025–2026)         147
  • Table 61. Comprehensive Production Cost Comparison (2025 actuals vs. 2030 and 2037 projections)                158
  • Table 62. Total Hydrogen Demand Projections — All Production Methods (2025–2037)             160
  • Table 63. Low-Emissions Hydrogen (Green + Blue) Demand and Market Share (2025–2037)  160
  • Table 64. Hydrogen Demand by End-Use Application (2025 actuals vs. 2030 / 2033 / 2037 projections)                161
  • Table 65. Green Hydrogen Demand by Application (2025, 2030, 2033, 2037)    163
  • Table 66. Regional Hydrogen Demand Projections (2025, 2030, 2036, 2037)     164
  • Table 67. Major Import-Export Trade Flows (2033 and 2037 Projections)               165
  • Table 68. Infrastructure requirements           166
  • Table 69. Demand Drivers vs. Constraints (Relative Impact Assessment)            167
  • Table 70. Total Hydrogen Market Revenue by Production Method (2025–2037) 169
  • Table 71. Electrolyser Equipment Market Revenue and Capacity Deployment (2025–2037)    169
  • Table 72. Cumulative Infrastructure Investment Requirements (2025–2037)     171
  • Table 73. Green Hydrogen Market Revenue by Application (2025–2037, US$B) 172
  • Table 74. Annual Investment Flow Analysis (2025–2037) 172
  • Table 75. Investment Distribution by Geography (% of total, 2025–2037)             173
  • Table 76. Electrolyser Manufacturing — Rapid Consolidation      174
  • Table 77. Project developer concentration 175
  • Table 78. Green hydrogen application markets.      177
  • Table 79. Major Green Hydrogen Projects — Global Status (September 2026)  177
  • Table 80. Green Hydrogen 2026 Market Status Update      180
  • Table 81. Traditional Hydrogen Production.               180
  • Table 82. Hydrogen Production Processes.                181
  • Table 83. Comparison of hydrogen types.   182
  • Table 84. Alkaline Electrolyser Performance Evolution (2020 → 2025 → 2030 → 2037)    188
  • Table 85. Comparative performance update (2026 commercial systems)            189
  • Table 86. Leading Electrolyser Manufacturers — Global Competitive Landscape (September 2026) 189
  • Table 87. Global manufacturing capacity summary            192
  • Table 88. Electrolyser Capacity — Installed vs. Under Construction vs. Announced     192
  • Table 89. US DOE Technical Targets vs. Current Performance by Electrolyser Technology (2025 actuals vs. DOE 2026 targets)               193
  • Table 90. Alkaline Electrolyzer Architecture Comparison 194
  • Table 91. Alkaline Electrolyzer Cost Breakdown (2024 vs. 2036 Projection)         194
  • Table 92. Alkaline Technology Roadmap     195
  • Table 93. Alkaline Market Share Evolution by Application 196
  • Table 94. Electrolyser Manufacturing Capacity by Company         196
  • Table 95. Electrolyzer Technology Comparison - Technical and Commercial Status (2024)     198
  • Table 96. Technology Selection by Application Type (2024-2025 Market Patterns)          199
  • Table 97. BoP Cost Breakdown by Component (% of Total Installed System Cost, 2025–2026)             201
  • Table 98.  Characteristics of typical water electrolysis technologies        205
  • Table 99. Advantages and disadvantages of water electrolysis technologies.    206
  • Table 100. Global Electrolyser Market Evolution (2020–2025 Actual, 2026–2037 Projections) 208
  • Table 101. Manufacturer Viability Assessment       210
  • Table 102. Cost Reality vs. Projections Table (2022 Forecast → 2025 Actual → 2030 and 2037 Revised)                213
  • Table 103. Manufacturing gigafactory status            214
  • Table 104. Market Opportunity Scenarios (2025–2037 Cumulative)         216
  • Table 105. Regional deployment outlook (2025–2037 cumulative, base case): 217
  • Table 106. Cumulative electrolyser revenue decomposition (2025–2037, base case)  218
  • Table 107. Classifications of Alkaline Electrolyzers.             219
  • Table 108. Advantages & limitations of AWE.            219
  • Table 109. Key performance characteristics of AWE.          220
  • Table 110. Updated cost trajectory (2025–2037)   222
  • Table 111. AWE LCOH by Region (2025–2026 Actual, 2030 and 2037 Projections)         223
  • Table 112.  LCOH component breakdown  224
  • Table 113. Detailed AWE System Cost Breakdown - Chinese vs. Western Manufacturers          225
  • Table 114. Major AWE Manufacturers            227
  • Table 115. AEM Performance - Laboratory vs. Demonstration vs. Commercial Targets 228
  • Table 116. Updated AEM commercial timeline (revised September 2026)           230
  • Table 117. Updated AEM cost benchmarks (2026):             231
  • Table 118. Comparison of Commercial AEM Materials.    234
  • Table 119. AEM Electrolyser Cost Structure — Current (2025–2026) vs. Projected Commercial (2030–2037)  235
  • Table 120. Performance vs. competitive technologies       236
  • Table 121. AEM Competitive Positioning vs. Established Technologies   236
  • Table 122. Companies in the AMEL market.              238
  • Table 123. Iridium Supply Constraint vs. PEM Electrolyzer Scaling Requirements           241
  • Table 124. Revised iridium cost trajectory  243
  • Table 125. PEM Electrolyser Cost Breakdown — 2025–2026 Actual vs. 2030 and 2037 Projections    248
  • Table 126. PEM Cost Reduction Pathways - Feasibility and Impact Assessment             249
  • Table 127. Companies in the PEMEL market.           251
  • Table 128. SOEC Performance - Theoretical vs. Pilot Demonstration vs. Commercial Requirements 254
  • Table 129. LCOH Comparison - SOEC vs. Alkaline in Best-Case SOEC Applications     255
  • Table 130. SOEC System Cost Breakdown — 2025–2026 Actual vs. 2032–2037 Projections   261
  • Table 131. SOEC LCOH           262
  • Table 132. SOEC LCOH Scenarios - Best Case to Worst Case      262
  • Table 133. Why SOEC Failed - Summary Assessment:      263
  • Table 134. Companies in the SOEC market.              264
  • Table 135. Other types of electrolyzer technologies             267
  • Table 136. Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction Technologies/              270
  • Table 137. Cost Comparison of CO₂ Electrochemical Technologies.        273
  • Table 138. Direct Seawater vs. Desalinated Water Electrolysis Comparison      278
  • Table 139. PEC vs. PV+Electrolysis Pathway Comparison               280
  • Table 140. Companies developing other electrolyzer technologies.         282
  • Table 141. Electrolyser Technology Cost Comparison — All Technologies (2026 Actual vs. 2030 and 2037 Projections)        282
  • Table 142. Water Requirements for Green Hydrogen Production 284
  • Table 143. Land Footprint for Green Hydrogen Production (Renewable Energy + Electrolyzer)                285
  • Table 144. Global Electrolyser Manufacturing Capacity — Current (2026) vs. Projected (2030, 2033, 2037)  285
  • Table 145. Key manufacturing developments 2025–2026 286
  • Table 146. Global Electrolyser Equipment Market Size — 2018 to 2037 (US$ Billions) 287
  • Table 147. Revenue by technology (2025–2037 cumulative, base case):               289
  • Table 148. Hydrogen Infrastructure Investment Requirements vs. Commitments (2024-2036)             290
  • Table 149. Hydrogen Transport Methods - Comprehensive Comparison               292
  • Table 150. Existing and Planned Hydrogen Pipeline Infrastructure (2024-2036) 293
  • Table 151. Natural Gas Pipeline Repurposing Challenges and Reality     293
  • Table 152. Hydrogen Pipeline Economics - Representative 500 km Regional Project     294
  • Table 153. Road/Rail Transport Economics               295
  • Table 154. Ammonia vs. Liquid H2 Shipping - Comprehensive Comparison       296
  • Table 155. Ammonia Shipping Value Chain - Investment and Development Status (2024-2036)          296
  • Table 156. Ammonia Cracking Facility Economics               297
  • Table 157. Hydrogen Storage Technologies - Comprehensive Comparison (2024)         298
  • Table 158. Salt Cavern Hydrogen Storage Economics and Availability     300
  • Table 159. Regional Salt Cavern Storage Availability and Implications    300
  • Table 160. Depleted Gas Fields and Aquifers - Uncertain Potential           301
  • Table 161. Industrial Gas Companies — Infrastructure Positions (Updated September 2026)               302
  • Table 162. Pipeline Infrastructure Developers          303
  • Table 163. Ammonia Shipping, Bunkering and Terminals 304
  • Table 164. Storage Technology Providers     304
  • Table 165. Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure         305
  • Table 166. PEMFC market segmentation     308
  • Table 167. Categories and examples of solid biofuel.         311
  • Table 168. Comparison of biofuels and e-fuels to fossil and electricity.  312
  • Table 169. Classification of biomass feedstock.    313
  • Table 170. Biorefinery feedstocks.   314
  • Table 171. Feedstock conversion pathways.             314
  • Table 172. Biodiesel production techniques.            315
  • Table 173. Advantages and disadvantages of biojet fuel   316
  • Table 174. Production pathways for bio-jet fuel.    317
  • Table 175. Applications of e-fuels, by type.                320
  • Table 176. Overview of e-fuels.          321
  • Table 177. Benefits of e-fuels.             321
  • Table 178. eFuel production facilities, current and planned.         324
  • Table 179. FCEV vs. BEV Competitive Position        329
  • Table 180. FCEV Manufacturer Status           330
  • Table 181. Hydrogen Refuelling Station Status by Region 331
  • Table 182. Heavy-duty truck competition   333
  • Table 183. Manufacturer status         333
  • Table 184. Global ammonia production by region and source       337
  • Table 185. Green Ammonia Demand Drivers and Market Segments (2025–2037)           337
  • Table 186. Maritime ammonia development timeline         339
  • Table 187. Green Ammonia Production Cost by Region (2025–2026 Actual vs. 2030 and 2037 Projections)    343
  • Table 188. Cost breakdown (representative: MENA, 2025–2026) 343
  • Table 189. Blue ammonia projects. 344
  • Table 190. Ammonia fuel cell technologies.              345
  • Table 191. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel.      346
  • Table 192. Summary of marine alternative fuels.   347
  • Table 193. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia.          348
  • Table 194. Global methanol market (2025–2026) 349
  • Table 195. E-methanol applications               350
  • Table 196. E-Methanol Production Costs (2025–2026 Actual vs. 2030 and 2037 Projections) 350
  • Table 197. Cost breakdown (representative: MENA, 2025–2026) 351
  • Table 198. Maritime methanol vs. ammonia             351
  • Table 199. Maritime Fuel Competition - Methanol vs. Ammonia 352
  • Table 200. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas. 354
  • Table 201. Global Steel Production by Method and Decarbonization Potential 357
  • Table 202. Steel Production Cost Comparison — BF-BOF vs. H-DRI + EAF           358
  • Table 203. Green Steel Projects and Capacity by Region  359
  • Table 204. Leading green steel projects        360
  • Table 205. Steelmaking Technology Comparison  361
  • Table 206. H-DRI Process Parameters and Requirements                363
  • Table 207. Green Steel Customer Segments and Premium Acceptance                 363
  • Table 208. Green steel demand projections              364
  • Table 209. Hydrogen vs. Competing Technologies for Power Generation               365
  • Table 210. Hydrogen Power Generation Technologies         365
  • Table 211. Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) - Hydrogen vs. Alternatives          366
  • Table 212. Heating Technology Comparison - Hydrogen vs. Alternatives                367
  • Table 213. Maritime Fuel Consumption and Decarbonization Pathways                369
  • Table 214. IMO GHG Regulations and Impact          369
  • Table 215. Ammonia vs. Methanol - Detailed Maritime Fuel Comparison             370
  • Table 216. Maritime Ammonia Value Chain Investment Needs     371
  • Table 217. Ammonia Propulsion Technologies for Maritime           372
  • Table 218. Rail Electrification Alternatives - Hydrogen vs. Competition  375
  • Table 219. Hydrogen Train Projects  375
  •  

List of Figures

  • Figure 1. Hydrogen value chain.        82
  • Figure 2. Principle of a PEM electrolyser.     151
  • Figure 3. Power-to-gas concept.        153
  • Figure 4. Schematic of a fuel cell stack.      154
  • Figure 5. High pressure electrolyser - 1 MW.             155
  • Figure 6. SWOT analysis: green hydrogen.  186
  • Figure 7. Types of electrolysis technologies.             187
  • Figure 8. Typical Balance of Plant including Gas processing.        200
  • Figure 9. Schematic of alkaline water electrolysis working principle.       220
  • Figure 10. Alkaline water electrolyzer.            221
  • Figure 11. Typical system design and balance of plant for an AEM electrolyser.                230
  • Figure 12. Schematic of PEM water electrolysis working principle.            242
  • Figure 13. Typical system design and balance of plant for a PEM electrolyser.   244
  • Figure 14. Schematic of solid oxide water electrolysis working principle.             253
  • Figure 15. Typical system design and balance of plant for a solid oxide electrolyser.     257
  • Figure 16. Process steps in the production of electrofuels.             319
  • Figure 17. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics.  320
  • Figure 18. Production process for green hydrogen.              322
  • Figure 19. E-liquids production routes.        323
  • Figure 20. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products. 323
  • Figure 21. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production.            324
  • Figure 22. Levelized cost and fuel-switching CO2 prices of e-fuels.          326
  • Figure 23. Cost breakdown for e-fuels.         328
  • Figure 24. Hydrogen fuel cell powered EV.  329
  • Figure 25. Green ammonia production and use.    336
  • Figure 26. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production.     340
  • Figure 27. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction.               341
  • Figure 28. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation.               342
  • Figure 29. Estimated production cost of green ammonia.               349
  • Figure 30. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks.       353
  • Figure 31. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading.        354
  • Figure 32. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation.               355
  • Figure 33. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process.  355
  • Figure 34. Transition to hydrogen-based production.          356
  • Figure 35. Hydrogen Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) process.  362
  • Figure 36. Three Gorges Hydrogen Boat No. 1.         369
  • Figure 37. PESA hydrogen-powered shunting locomotive.               374
  • Figure 38. Symbiotic™ technology process.               378
  • Figure 39. Alchemr AEM electrolyzer cell.   383
  • Figure 40. Domsjö process.  412
  • Figure 41. EL 2.1 AEM Electrolyser.  416
  • Figure 42. Enapter – Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) Water Electrolysis.         417
  • Figure 43. Direct MCH® process.      419
  • Figure 44. FuelPositive system.         425
  • Figure 45. Left: a typical single-stage electrolyzer design, with a membrane separating the hydrogen and oxygen gasses. Right: the two-stage E-TAC process.           442
  • Figure 46. Hystar PEM electrolyser. 453
  • Figure 47. OCOchem’s Carbon Flux Electrolyzer.   472
  • Figure 48.  CO2 hydrogenation to jet fuel range hydrocarbons process. 476
  • Figure 49. The Plagazi ® process.      481
  • Figure 50. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production.       498
  • Figure 51. O12 Reactor.           509
  • Figure 52. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials.  509
  • Figure 53. CO2 made car part.           509

 

 

 

 

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