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Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS): Global Market 2027-2047

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  • Published: June 2026
  • Pages: 713
  • Tables: 287
  • Figures: 160

 

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is a suite of technologies that capture carbon dioxide from industrial point sources or directly from the atmosphere, then either store it permanently underground or convert it into commercially valuable products. Applied to a conventional power plant, carbon capture systems can reduce CO₂ emissions by roughly 80–90% compared to an uncontrolled facility. The full chain consists of three stages: capturing the carbon dioxide, transporting it, and either storing it in geological formations—such as depleted oil and gas fields or deep saline aquifers—or utilizing it.

CO₂ is already a globally traded commodity, with around 230 million tonnes consumed each year. The fertilizer industry is the largest consumer, using roughly 130 Mt for urea manufacturing, followed by the oil and gas sector, which uses 70–80 Mt for enhanced oil recovery. Other established applications include food and beverage production, metal fabrication, cooling, fire suppression, and stimulating plant growth in greenhouses. While most commercial use today involves the direct application of CO₂, emerging pathways are transforming it into synthetic fuels, chemicals, polymers, and building materials—often by reacting it with minerals or industrial waste streams such as iron slag to form stable carbonates.

The CCUS business model centers on reducing greenhouse gas emissions while creating economic value from captured carbon. Operators capture CO₂ from emitters or the air, transport it, and store or utilize it. Revenue streams arise from carbon credits, the sale of captured CO₂, enhanced oil recovery, and government incentives such as the US 45Q tax credit. The cost structure is dominated by substantial capital expenditure on infrastructure, ongoing operational costs, and continued R&D investment. Competitive advantage typically derives from proprietary capture technologies, strategic partnerships across the value chain, and economies of scale achieved through shared hubs and clusters.

The regulatory environment is the decisive factor shaping market growth. Carbon pricing mechanisms—including the EU Emissions Trading Scheme, compliance markets in the US and China, and voluntary carbon markets—alongside emissions-reduction mandates determine project viability. Key barriers remain high capture costs, transport and storage infrastructure gaps, regulatory uncertainty, and long-term liability for stored CO₂. Despite these challenges, CCUS is increasingly viewed as indispensable for decarbonizing hard-to-abate sectors such as cement, steel, chemicals, and blue hydrogen, where few alternative pathways exist.

This comprehensive market report provides an in-depth analysis of the global CCUS industry across a twenty-year forecast horizon. It examines the entire value chain—capture, transport, utilization, and storage—and delivers granular market forecasts segmented by capture type, CO₂ endpoint, source sector, and region. The report covers the full technology landscape, from mature post-combustion chemical absorption through to emerging direct air capture (DAC), electrochemical conversion, and enhanced mineralization. It analyzes the economics of CCUS projects, CAPEX and OPEX reduction strategies, carbon pricing regimes, business models, and the policy environment across North America, Europe, and Asia. The report also assesses utilization pathways—fuels, chemicals, building materials, biological yield-boosting, and enhanced oil recovery—alongside detailed storage and transportation analysis. It concludes with profiles of nearly 400 companies operating across the value chain.

Key content areas include:

  • Executive summary covering main CO₂ emission sources, CO₂ as a commodity, climate targets, market drivers and trends, industry developments 2020–2025, VC funding, and government initiatives.
  • Market forecasts for capture capacity by endpoint and region to 2047, revenue potential, capacity by capture type, point-source capacity by source sector, and cost projections 2025–2047.
  • Carbon capture technologies including post-combustion, pre-combustion, oxy-fuel combustion, technology readiness levels, energy consumption, and capture costs.
  • Sector deep-dives into blue hydrogen, cement, steel, power generation, and BECCS.
  • Direct Air Capture (DAC) technologies, plants and projects, capacity forecasts, costs, and market prospects.
  • Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) covering BECCS, mineralization, enhanced weathering, afforestation, biochar, soil carbon sequestration, and ocean-based CDR.
  • Carbon dioxide utilization pathways, conversion processes, and forecasts for fuels, chemicals, construction materials, and biological applications.
  • Carbon dioxide storage site types, capacity estimates, monitoring technologies, CO₂-EOR, and storage projects.
  • Carbon dioxide transportation by pipeline, ship, rail, and truck, plus smart pipeline networks and hubs.
  • Carbon pricing and business models including 45Q tax credits, the EU ETS, and voluntary carbon markets.
  • Nearly 400 detailed company profiles spanning capture, utilization, storage, and transportation including 8 Rivers, 3R-BioPhosphate, Adaptavate, Again, Aeroborn B.V., Aether Diamonds, AirCapture LLC, Aircela Inc, Aurora Hydrogen, Airrane, Air Company, Air Liquide S.A., Air Products and Chemicals Inc., Air Protein, Air Quality Solutions Worldwide DAC, Airex Energy, AirHive, Airovation Technologies, Algal Bio Co. Ltd., Algenol, Algiecel ApS, Andes Ag Inc., Anhui Conch Cement Group, Applied Carbon, Aqualung Carbon Capture, Arborea, Arca, Ardent Process Technologies, Arkeon Biotechnologies, Asahi Kasei, AspiraDAC Pty Ltd., Aspiring Materials, Atoco, Avantium N.V., Avnos Inc., Aymium, Axens SA, Azolla, Baker Hughes, Banyu Carbon, Barton Blakeley Technologies Ltd., BASF Group, BC Biocarbon, BP PLC, Beijing Carbontech Industrial Co., Biochar Now, Bio-Logica Carbon Ltd., Biomacon GmbH, Biosorra, Blue Planet Systems Corporation, Blusink Ltd., Boomitra, Brineworks, BluSky Inc., Breathe Applied Sciences, Bright Renewables, Brilliant Planet Systems, bse Methanol GmbH, C-Capture, Concrete4Change, Cool Planet Energy Systems, Coval Energy B.V., Covestro AG, C-Quester Inc., C-Questra, Cquestr8 Limited, CREW Carbon, CyanoCapture, DACMA, D-CRBN, Decarbontek LLC, Deep Branch Biotechnology, Deep Sky, Denbury Inc., Dimensional Energy, Dioxide Materials, Dioxycle, Drax, Earth RepAIR, Ebb Carbon, Ecocera, eChemicles, ecoLocked GmbH, EDAC Labs, Eion Carbon, Econic Technologies Ltd, EcoClosure LLC, Ecospray Technologies, Ekona Power, Electrochaea GmbH, Emerging Fuels Technology (EFT), Empower Materials Inc., Enerkem Inc., enaDyne GmbH, Entropy Inc., E-Quester, Equatic, Equinor ASA, ESTECH, Evonik Industries AG, Exomad Green, ExxonMobil, 44.01, Fairbrics, Fervo Energy, Fluor Corporation, Fortera Corporation, Fortum, Framergy Inc., Freres Biochar, FuelCell Energy Inc., Funga, GE Gas Power (General Electric), Giammarco Vetrocoke, GigaBlue, GIG Karasek, Giner Inc., Global Algae Innovations, Global Thermostat LLC, Graphyte, Grassroots Biochar AB, Graviky Labs, GreenCap Solutions AS, Greenlyte Carbon Technologies, Greeniron H2 AB, Green Sequest, Gulf Coast Sequestration, greenSand, Hago Energetics, Haldor Topsoe, Hazer Group, Heimdal CCU, Heirloom Carbon Technologies, HIF Global, High Hopes Labs, Holcim Group, Holocene, Holy Grail Inc., Honeywell, Oy Hydrocell Ltd., HYCO1, Hyvegeo, 1point8, IHI Corporation, Immaterial Ltd, Ineratec GmbH, Infinitree LLC, Infinium, Innovator Energy, InnoSepra LLC, Inplanet GmbH, InterEarth, ION Clean Energy Inc., Japan CCS Co. Ltd., Jupiter Oxygen Corporation, Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd., KC8 Capture Technologies (KC8), Krajete GmbH, LanzaJet Inc., Lanzatech, Lectrolyst LLC, Levidian Nanosystems, Limenet, The Linde Group, Liquid Wind AB, Lithos Carbon, Living Carbon, Loam Bio, Low Carbon Korea, Low Carbon Materials, Made of Air GmbH, Mango Materials Inc., Mantel Capture, Mars Materials, Mattershift, Mati Carbon, MCI Carbon, Membrane Technology and Research (MTR), Mercurius Biorefining, Minera Systems, Mineral Carbonation International (MCi) Carbon and more......

 

 

 

 

 

1             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY            36

  • 1.1        Main sources of carbon dioxide emissions 36
  • 1.2        CO2 as a commodity                37
  • 1.3        Meeting climate targets          40
  • 1.4        Market drivers and trends      40
  • 1.5        The current market and future outlook         41
  • 1.6        CCUS investments     41
    • 1.6.1    Venture Capital Funding         41
      • 1.6.1.1 2010-2026      42
      • 1.6.1.2 CCUS VC deals 2022-2026  42
  • 1.7        Government CCUS initiatives and policy environment       45
  • 1.8        Market map    48
  • 1.9        Commercial CCUS facilities and projects  51
    • 1.9.1    Facilities           51
      • 1.9.1.1 Operational     51
      • 1.9.1.2 Under development/construction    52
  • 1.10     Economics of CCUS projects              54
    • 1.10.1 CAPEX Reduction Strategies                54
    • 1.10.2 OPEX Reduction Approaches             54
    • 1.10.3 Emerging Technology Solutions         55
  • 1.11     CCUS Value Chain     55
  • 1.12     Key market barriers for CCUS             57
  • 1.13     CCUS and the energy trilemma         57
  • 1.14     Growth markets for CUS        58
  • 1.15     Carbon pricing              59
    • 1.15.1 Compliance Carbon Pricing Mechanisms  60
    • 1.15.2 Alternative to Carbon Pricing: 45Q Tax Credits        61
    • 1.15.3 Business models         63
      • 1.15.3.1            Full chain         64
      • 1.15.3.2            Networks and hub model      64
      • 1.15.3.3            Partial-chain  65
      • 1.15.3.4            Carbon dioxide utilization business model 65
    • 1.15.4 The European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS)  66
    • 1.15.5 Carbon Pricing in the US        67
    • 1.15.6 Carbon Pricing in China          67
    • 1.15.7 Voluntary Carbon Markets    68
    • 1.15.8 Challenges with Carbon Pricing        69
  • 1.16     Global market forecasts         70
    • 1.16.1 CCUS capture capacity forecast by end point         70
    • 1.16.2 Capture capacity by region to 2047, Mtpa  71
    • 1.16.3 Revenues          71
    • 1.16.4 CCUS capacity forecast by capture type     71
    • 1.16.5 Cost projections 2025-2047 72

 

2             INTRODUCTION          74

  • 2.1        What is CCUS?             74
    • 2.1.1    Carbon Capture           79
      • 2.1.1.1 Source Characterization        79
      • 2.1.1.2 Purification      79
      • 2.1.1.3 CO2 capture technologies    80
    • 2.1.2    Carbon Utilization      83
      • 2.1.2.1 CO2 utilization pathways       84
    • 2.1.3    Carbon storage            84
      • 2.1.3.1 Passive storage            84
      • 2.1.3.2 Enhanced oil recovery              85
  • 2.2        Transporting CO2        85
    • 2.2.1    Methods of CO2 transport    85
      • 2.2.1.1 Pipeline              87
      • 2.2.1.2 Ship      87
      • 2.2.1.3 Road    87
      • 2.2.1.4 Rail       87
    • 2.2.2    Safety  88
  • 2.3        Costs  89
    • 2.3.1    Cost of CO2 transport              90
  • 2.4        Carbon credits              91
  • 2.5        Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of CCUS Technologies           93
  • 2.6        Environmental Impact Assessment                94
  • 2.7        Social acceptance and public perception  95
  • 2.8        Fate of CO2     95

 

3             CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE               97

  • 3.1        Historical CO2 capture           97
  • 3.2        CO₂ capture technologies     97
  • 3.3        Maturity of technologies         100
  • 3.4        Technology selection                101
  • 3.5        Capture Percentages                105
    • 3.5.1    >90% capture rate      105
    • 3.5.2    99% capture rate         106
  • 3.6        CO2 capture agent performance      108
  • 3.7        Energy Consumption               109
  • 3.8        TRL       111
  • 3.9        Global Pipeline of Carbon Capture Facilities-Current and PLanned         112
  • 3.10     CO2 capture from point sources      113
    • 3.10.1 Energy Availability and Costs              116
    • 3.10.2 Power plants with CCUS        116
    • 3.10.3 Transportation              117
    • 3.10.4 Global point source CO2 capture capacities           117
    • 3.10.5 Blue hydrogen               118
      • 3.10.5.1            Steam-methane reforming (SMR)    118
      • 3.10.5.2            Autothermal reforming (ATR)               119
      • 3.10.5.3            Partial oxidation (POX)             120
      • 3.10.5.4            Sorption Enhanced Steam Methane Reforming (SE-SMR)               121
      • 3.10.5.5            Pre-Combustion vs. Post-Combustion carbon capture     122
      • 3.10.5.6            Blue hydrogen projects            123
      • 3.10.5.7            Costs  123
      • 3.10.5.8            Market players               124
    • 3.10.6 Carbon capture in cement    125
      • 3.10.6.1            CCUS Projects              126
      • 3.10.6.2            Carbon capture technologies             127
      • 3.10.6.3            Costs  128
      • 3.10.6.4            Challenges      128
    • 3.10.7 Maritime carbon capture       129
  • 3.11     Main carbon capture processes        129
    • 3.11.1 Materials           129
    • 3.11.2 Natural Gas Sweetening         131
    • 3.11.3 Post-combustion        131
      • 3.11.3.1            Chemicals/Solvents  133
      • 3.11.3.2            Amine-based post-combustion CO₂ absorption    135
      • 3.11.3.3            Physical absorption solvents              137
      • 3.11.3.4            Emerging Solvents for Carbon Capture        139
      • 3.11.3.5            Chilled Ammonia Process (CAP)       140
      • 3.11.3.6            Molten Borates             141
      • 3.11.3.7            Costs  141
      • 3.11.3.8            Alternatives to Solvent-Based Carbon Capture       142
    • 3.11.4 Oxy-fuel combustion                143
      • 3.11.4.1            Oxyfuel CCUS cement projects         144
      • 3.11.4.2            Chemical Looping-Based Capture  145
    • 3.11.5 Liquid or supercritical CO2: Allam-Fetvedt Cycle  146
    • 3.11.6 Pre-combustion           147
  • 3.12     Carbon separation technologies       148
    • 3.12.1 Absorption capture    149
    • 3.12.2 Adsorption capture    153
      • 3.12.2.1            Solid sorbent-based CO₂ separation             154
      • 3.12.2.2            Metal organic framework (MOF) adsorbents             156
      • 3.12.2.3            Zeolite-based adsorbents     156
      • 3.12.2.4            Solid amine-based adsorbents         156
      • 3.12.2.5            Carbon-based adsorbents   157
      • 3.12.2.6            Polymer-based adsorbents  158
      • 3.12.2.7            Solid sorbents in pre-combustion   158
      • 3.12.2.8            Sorption Enhanced Water Gas Shift (SEWGS)          159
      • 3.12.2.9            Solid sorbents in post-combustion 160
    • 3.12.3 Membranes    162
      • 3.12.3.1            Membrane-based CO₂ separation   163
      • 3.12.3.2            Gas Separation Membranes 166
      • 3.12.3.3            Post-combustion CO₂ capture           167
      • 3.12.3.4            Facilitated transport membranes    167
      • 3.12.3.5            Pre-combustion capture        168
      • 3.12.3.6            Advanced membrane materials        169
        • 3.12.3.6.1        Graphene-based membranes            170
        • 3.12.3.6.2        Metal-organic framework (MOF) membranes          170
      • 3.12.3.7            Membranes for Direct Air Capture   171
    • 3.12.4 Liquid or supercritical CO2 (Cryogenic) capture    172
    • 3.12.5 Calcium Looping         175
      • 3.12.5.1            Calix Advanced Calciner        175
    • 3.12.6 Other technologies    176
      • 3.12.6.1            LEILAC process            176
      • 3.12.6.2            CO₂ capture with Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) 177
      • 3.12.6.3            CO₂ capture with Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) 178
      • 3.12.6.4            Microalgae Carbon Capture 178
    • 3.12.7 Comparison of key separation technologies             180
    • 3.12.8 Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separation technologies               181
  • 3.13     Opportunities and barriers   181
  • 3.14     Costs of CO2 capture               182
  • 3.15     CO2 capture capacity              184
  • 3.16     Direct air capture (DAC)         186
    • 3.16.1 Technology description           186
      • 3.16.1.1            Sorbent-based CO2 Capture               186
      • 3.16.1.2            Solvent-based CO2 Capture                186
      • 3.16.1.3            DAC Solid Sorbent Swing Adsorption Processes    187
      • 3.16.1.4            Electro-Swing Adsorption (ESA) of CO2 for DAC     187
      • 3.16.1.5            Solid and liquid DAC 188
    • 3.16.2 Advantages of DAC    189
    • 3.16.3 Deployment    189
    • 3.16.4 Point source carbon capture versus Direct Air Capture     190
    • 3.16.5 Technologies  191
      • 3.16.5.1            Solid sorbents               193
      • 3.16.5.2            Liquid sorbents            195
      • 3.16.5.3            Liquid solvents             196
      • 3.16.5.4            Airflow equipment integration            196
      • 3.16.5.5            Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC)   196
      • 3.16.5.6            Direct conversion        197
      • 3.16.5.7            Co-product generation            197
      • 3.16.5.8            Low Temperature DAC             197
      • 3.16.5.9            Regeneration methods            197
    • 3.16.6 Electricity and Heat Sources               198
    • 3.16.7 Commercialization and plants           198
    • 3.16.8 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in DAC  199
    • 3.16.9 DAC plants and projects-current and planned        200
    • 3.16.10              Capacity forecasts     202
    • 3.16.11              Costs  203
    • 3.16.12              Market challenges for DAC   209
    • 3.16.13              Market prospects for direct air capture        210
    • 3.16.14              Players and production           212
    • 3.16.15              Co2 utilization pathways        213
    • 3.16.16              Markets for Direct Air Capture and Storage (DACCS)          215
  • 3.17     Hybrid Capture Systems        217
  • 3.18     Artificial Intelligence in Carbon Capture      217
  • 3.19     Integration with Renewable Energy Systems             218
  • 3.20     Mobile Carbon Capture Solutions   219
  • 3.21     Carbon Capture Retrofitting 220

 

4             CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL              221

  • 4.1        Conventional CDR on land   222
    • 4.1.1    Wetland and peatland restoration   222
    • 4.1.2    Cropland, grassland, and agroforestry         223
  • 4.2        Technological CDR Solutions              223
  • 4.3        Main CDR methods   224
  • 4.4        Novel CDR methods 225
  • 4.5        Value chain     227
  • 4.6        Deployment of carbon dioxide removal technologies         229
  • 4.7        Technology Readiness Level (TRL): Carbon Dioxide Removal Methods   230
  • 4.8        Carbon Credits             231
    • 4.8.1    Description     231
    • 4.8.2    Carbon pricing              231
    • 4.8.3    Carbon Removal vs Carbon Avoidance Offsetting 233
    • 4.8.4    Carbon credit certification    233
    • 4.8.5    Carbon registries         234
    • 4.8.6    Carbon credit quality                235
    • 4.8.7    Voluntary Carbon Credits      235
      • 4.8.7.1 Definition         235
      • 4.8.7.2 Purchasing      237
      • 4.8.7.3 Key Market Players and Projects        239
      • 4.8.7.4 Pricing 240
    • 4.8.8    Compliance Carbon Credits                242
      • 4.8.8.1 Definition         242
      • 4.8.8.2 Market players               243
      • 4.8.8.3 Pricing 243
    • 4.8.9    Durable carbon dioxide removal (CDR) credits        244
    • 4.8.10 Corporate commitments       245
    • 4.8.11 Increasing government support and regulations    246
    • 4.8.12 Advancements in carbon offset project verification and monitoring        247
    • 4.8.13 Potential for blockchain technology in carbon credit trading         247
    • 4.8.14 Buying and Selling Carbon Credits  247
      • 4.8.14.1            Carbon credit exchanges and trading platforms     248
      • 4.8.14.2            Over-the-counter (OTC) transactions            249
      • 4.8.14.3            Pricing mechanisms and factors affecting carbon credit prices  249
    • 4.8.15 Certification    250
    • 4.8.16 Challenges and risks 250
  • 4.9        Monitoring, reporting, and verification          251
  • 4.10     Government policies 252
  • 4.11     Bioenergy with Carbon Removal and Storage (BiCRS)       253
    • 4.11.1 Feedstocks      254
    • 4.11.2 BiCRS Conversion Pathways                255
  • 4.12     BECCS               257
    • 4.12.1 Technology overview 257
      • 4.12.1.1            Point Source Capture Technologies for BECCS       259
      • 4.12.1.2            Energy efficiency         259
      • 4.12.1.3            Heat generation           259
      • 4.12.1.4            Waste-to-Energy          260
      • 4.12.1.5            Blue Hydrogen Production    260
    • 4.12.2 Biomass conversion 261
    • 4.12.3 CO₂ capture technologies     261
    • 4.12.4 BECCS facilities           263
    • 4.12.5 Cost analysis 264
    • 4.12.6 BECCS carbon credits             265
    • 4.12.7 Sustainability 265
    • 4.12.8 Challenges      265
  • 4.13     Mineralization-based CDR    267
    • 4.13.1 Overview           267
    • 4.13.2 Storage in CO₂-Derived Concrete     268
    • 4.13.3 Oxide Looping               270
    • 4.13.4 Enhanced Weathering              271
      • 4.13.4.1            Overview           271
      • 4.13.4.2            Benefits             271
      • 4.13.4.3            Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV)         271
      • 4.13.4.4            Applications   272
      • 4.13.4.5            Commercial activity and companies             273
      • 4.13.4.6            Challenges and Risks               274
    • 4.13.5 Cost analysis 275
    • 4.13.6 SWOT analysis              275
  • 4.14     Afforestation/Reforestation  276
    • 4.14.1 Overview           276
    • 4.14.2 Carbon dioxide removal methods    277
      • 4.14.2.1            Nature-based CDR     277
      • 4.14.2.2            Land-based CDR         278
    • 4.14.3 Technologies  279
      • 4.14.3.1            Remote Sensing           279
      • 4.14.3.2            Drone technology and robotics         279
      • 4.14.3.3            Automated forest fire detection systems    280
      • 4.14.3.4            AI/ML   280
      • 4.14.3.5            Genetics            281
    • 4.14.4 Trends and Opportunities      281
    • 4.14.5 Challenges and Risks               282
      • 4.14.5.1            SWOT analysis              282
      • 4.14.5.2            Soil carbon sequestration (SCS)       283
        • 4.14.5.2.1        Overview           283
        • 4.14.5.2.2        Practices           284
        • 4.14.5.2.3        Measuring and Verifying         285
        • 4.14.5.2.4        Trends and Opportunities      286
        • 4.14.5.2.5        Carbon credits              287
        • 4.14.5.2.6        Challenges and Risks               288
        • 4.14.5.2.7        SWOT analysis              288
      • 4.14.5.3            Biochar              290
        • 4.14.5.3.1        What is biochar?         290
        • 4.14.5.3.2        Carbon sequestration              292
        • 4.14.5.3.3        Properties of biochar 292
        • 4.14.5.3.4        Feedstocks      295
        • 4.14.5.3.5        Production processes              295
          • 4.14.5.3.5.1   Sustainable production          296
          • 4.14.5.3.5.2   Pyrolysis            297
            • 4.14.5.3.5.2.1 Slow pyrolysis               297
            • 4.14.5.3.5.2.2 Fast pyrolysis 298
          • 4.14.5.3.5.3   Gasification    299
          • 4.14.5.3.5.4   Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC)  299
          • 4.14.5.3.5.5   Torrefaction     299
          • 4.14.5.3.5.6   Equipment manufacturers   300
        • 4.14.5.3.6        Biochar pricing             301
        • 4.14.5.3.7        Biochar carbon credits            301
          • 4.14.5.3.7.1   Overview           301
          • 4.14.5.3.7.2   Removal and reduction credits          302
          • 4.14.5.3.7.3   The advantage of biochar      302
          • 4.14.5.3.7.4   Prices  302
          • 4.14.5.3.7.5   Buyers of biochar credits       303
          • 4.14.5.3.7.6   Competitive materials and technologies    303
        • 4.14.5.3.8        Bio-oil based CDR      304
        • 4.14.5.3.9        Biomass burial for CO₂ removal        305
        • 4.14.5.3.10     Bio-based construction materials for CDR 306
        • 4.14.5.3.11     SWOT analysis              307
  • 4.15     Ocean-based CDR     308
    • 4.15.1 Overview           308
    • 4.15.2 CO₂ capture from seawater  309
    • 4.15.3 Ocean fertilisation      309
      • 4.15.3.1            Biotic Methods             310
      • 4.15.3.2            Coastal blue carbon ecosystems     310
      • 4.15.3.3            Algal Cultivation           311
      • 4.15.3.4            Artificial Upwelling     311
    • 4.15.4 Ocean alkalinisation 311
      • 4.15.4.1            Electrochemical ocean alkalinity enhancement    312
      • 4.15.4.2            Direct Ocean Capture              312
      • 4.15.4.3            Artificial Downwelling              313
    • 4.15.5 Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV)         313
    • 4.15.6 Ocean-based CDR Carbon Credits 313
    • 4.15.7 Trends and Opportunities      314
    • 4.15.8 Ocean-based carbon credits               314
    • 4.15.9 Cost analysis 314
    • 4.15.10              Challenges and Risks               314
    • 4.15.11              SWOT analysis              315
    • 4.15.12              Companies     316

 

5             CARBON DIOXIDE UTILIZATION        317

  • 5.1        Overview           317
    • 5.1.1    Current market status              317
  • 5.2        Competition with other low carbon technologies  322
  • 5.3        Carbon utilization business models               324
    • 5.3.1    Benefits of carbon utilization              325
    • 5.3.2    Market challenges      327
  • 5.4        Co2 utilization pathways        327
  • 5.5        Conversion processes             330
    • 5.5.1    Thermochemical         330
      • 5.5.1.1 Process overview        330
      • 5.5.1.2 Plasma-assisted CO2 conversion    332
    • 5.5.2    Electrochemical conversion of CO2               333
      • 5.5.2.1 Process overview        334
    • 5.5.3    Photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic conversion of CO2    336
    • 5.5.4    Catalytic conversion of CO2                336
    • 5.5.5    Biological conversion of CO2              336
    • 5.5.6    Copolymerization of CO2      339
    • 5.5.7    Mineral carbonation  341
  • 5.6        CO2-Utilization in Fuels          344
    • 5.6.1    Overview           344
    • 5.6.2    Production routes       348
    • 5.6.3    CO₂ -fuels in road vehicles    351
    • 5.6.4    CO₂ -fuels in shipping              351
    • 5.6.5    CO₂ -fuels in aviation                352
    • 5.6.6    Green hydrogen for e-fuels    352
    • 5.6.7    Production routes       353
    • 5.6.8    Costs of e-fuel               353
    • 5.6.9    Power-to-methane     353
      • 5.6.9.1 Thermocatalytic pathway to e-methane      354
      • 5.6.9.2 Biological fermentation           354
      • 5.6.9.3 Costs  355
    • 5.6.10 Algae based biofuels 358
    • 5.6.11 DAC for e-fuels              359
    • 5.6.12 Syngas Production Options 360
    • 5.6.13 CO₂-fuels from solar 360
    • 5.6.14 Companies     362
    • 5.6.15 Challenges      363
    • 5.6.16 Global market forecasts         364
  • 5.7        CO2-Utilization in Chemicals             364
    • 5.7.1    Overview           364
    • 5.7.2    Carbon nanostructures          365
    • 5.7.3    Scalability        367
    • 5.7.4    Pathways          368
      • 5.7.4.1 Thermochemical         368
      • 5.7.4.2 Electrochemical           370
        • 5.7.4.2.1           Low-Temperature Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction              370
        • 5.7.4.2.2           High-Temperature Solid Oxide Electrolyzers              371
        • 5.7.4.2.3           Coupling H2 and Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction                372
      • 5.7.4.3 Microbial conversion 372
      • 5.7.4.4 Other   374
        • 5.7.4.4.1           Photocatalytic               374
        • 5.7.4.4.2           Plasma technology    374
    • 5.7.5    Applications   375
      • 5.7.5.1 Urea production           375
      • 5.7.5.2 CO₂-derived polymers             375
        • 5.7.5.2.1           Pathways          375
        • 5.7.5.2.2           Polycarbonate from CO₂         376
        • 5.7.5.2.3           Methanol to olefins (polypropylene production)     377
        • 5.7.5.2.4           Ethanol to polymers  377
      • 5.7.5.3 Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing 377
    • 5.7.6    Companies     378
    • 5.7.7    Global market forecasts         380
  • 5.8        CO₂-Utilization in Carbon Materials                381
    • 5.8.1    Overview           381
    • 5.8.2    The triple-revenue thesis       381
    • 5.8.3    Production routes       381
    • 5.8.4    Output materials         381
    • 5.8.5    Net-negative carbon claim quantification  382
    • 5.8.6    Pricing comparison   382
    • 5.8.7    Market forecasts         382
  • 5.9        CO2-Utilization in Construction and Building Materials    383
    • 5.9.1    Overview           383
    • 5.9.2    Market drivers                383
    • 5.9.3    Key CO₂ utilization technologies in construction   386
    • 5.9.4    Carbonated aggregates          389
    • 5.9.5    Additives during mixing           390
    • 5.9.6    Concrete curing           391
    • 5.9.7    Costs  391
    • 5.9.8    Market trends and business models              391
    • 5.9.9    Carbon credits              395
    • 5.9.10 Companies     395
    • 5.9.11 Challenges      396
    • 5.9.12 Global market forecasts         397
  • 5.10     CO2-Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting             398
    • 5.10.1 Overview           398
    • 5.10.2 CO₂ utilization in biological processes         398
    • 5.10.3 Applications   398
      • 5.10.3.1            Greenhouses 399
        • 5.10.3.1.1        CO₂ enrichment           399
      • 5.10.3.2            Algae cultivation          399
        • 5.10.3.2.1        CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: open systems    400
        • 5.10.3.2.2        CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: closed systems 400
      • 5.10.3.3            Microbial conversion 401
      • 5.10.3.4            Food and feed production     403
    • 5.10.4 Companies     403
    • 5.10.5 Global market forecasts         404
  • 5.11     CO₂ Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery   405
    • 5.11.1 Overview           405
      • 5.11.1.1            Process              405
      • 5.11.1.2            CO₂ sources   406
    • 5.11.2 CO₂-EOR facilities and projects         406
    • 5.11.3 Challenges      407
    • 5.11.4 Global market forecasts         407
  • 5.12     Enhanced mineralization       407
    • 5.12.1 Advantages     407
    • 5.12.2 In situ and ex-situ mineralization      408
    • 5.12.3 Enhanced mineralization pathways                409
    • 5.12.4 Challenges      410
  • 5.13     Digital Solutions and IoT in Carbon Utilization         410
  • 5.14     Blockchain Applications in Carbon Trading               411
  • 5.15     Carbon Utilization in Data Centers  412
  • 5.16     Integration with Smart City Infrastructure   412
  • 5.17     Novel Applications     413
    • 5.17.1 3D Printing with CO2-derived Materials       413
    • 5.17.2 CO2 in Energy Storage             414
    • 5.17.3 CO2 in Electronics Manufacturing  415

 

6             CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE               415

  • 6.1        Introduction    415
  • 6.2        CO2 storage sites       418
    • 6.2.1    Storage types for geologic CO2 storage       418
    • 6.2.2    Oil and gas fields         420
    • 6.2.3    Saline formations       421
    • 6.2.4    Coal seams and shale             422
    • 6.2.5    Basalts and ultra-mafic rocks             423
  • 6.3        CO₂ leakage    423
  • 6.4        Global CO2 storage capacity              425
  • 6.5        CO₂ Storage Projects 428
  • 6.6        CO₂ -EOR          431
    • 6.6.1    Description     431
    • 6.6.2    Injected CO₂   431
    • 6.6.3    CO₂ capture with CO₂ -EOR facilities             432
    • 6.6.4    Companies     433
    • 6.6.5    Economics      433
  • 6.7        Costs  434
  • 6.8        Challenges      435
  • 6.9        Storage Monitoring Technologies      435
  • 6.10     Underground Hydrogen Storage Synergies 436
  • 6.11     Advanced Modelling and Simulation              437
  • 6.12     Storage Site Selection Criteria            437
  • 6.13     Risk Assessment and Management               438

 

7             CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORTATION          439

  • 7.1        Introduction    440
  • 7.2        CO₂ transportation methods and conditions           440
  • 7.3        CO₂ transportation by pipeline           441
  • 7.4        CO₂ transportation by ship   442
  • 7.5        CO₂ transportation by rail and truck               443
  • 7.6        Cost analysis of different methods 443
  • 7.7        Smart Pipeline Networks        444
  • 7.8        Transportation Hubs and Infrastructure       445
  • 7.9        Safety Systems and Monitoring         445
  • 7.10     Future Transportation Technologies               446
  • 7.11     Companies     447

 

8             COMPANY PROFILES                449 (395 company profiles)

 

9             APPENDICES  702

  • 9.1        Abbreviations 702
  • 9.2        Research Methodology           703
  • 9.3        Definition of Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS)     703
  • 9.4        Technology Readiness Level (TRL)   704

 

10          REFERENCES 706

 

List of Tables

  • Table 1. Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) market drivers and trends.   40
  • Table 2. Global Investment in Carbon Capture Technologies (2010-2024)           42
  • Table 3. CCUS VC deals 2022-2025.              43
  • Table 4. CCUS government funding and investment-10 year outlook.      46
  • Table 5. Global Commercial CCUS Facilities — In Operation (2026)        51
  • Table 6. Global Commercial CCUS Facilities — Under Development/Construction       52
  • Table 7. Cost Reduction Using Proven and Emerging Technologies.          55
  • Table 8. Key market barriers for CCUS.         57
  • Table 9. Key compliance carbon pricing initiatives around the world.      60
  • Table 10. CCUS business models: full chain, part chain, and hubs and clusters.            63
  • Table 11. CCUS capture capacity forecast by CO₂ endpoint, Mtpa of CO₂, to 2047.      71
  • Table 12. Capture capacity by region to 2047, Mtpa.          71
  • Table 13. CCUS revenue potential ($bn)      71
  • Table 14. Capacity by capture type (Mtpa) 72
  • Table 15. Point-source CCUS capture capacity forecast by CO₂ source sector, Mtpa of CO₂, to 2046.                72
  • Table 16. CCUS Cost Projections 2025-2047.         73
  • Table 17. CO2 utilization and removal pathways    75
  • Table 18. Approaches for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from point sources. 79
  • Table 19. CO2 capture technologies.             80
  • Table 20. Advantages and challenges of carbon capture technologies. 81
  • Table 21. Overview of commercial materials and processes utilized in carbon capture.             81
  • Table 22. Methods of CO2 transport.             86
  • Table 23. Comparison of CO2 Transportation Methods.   88
  • Table 24. Estimated capital costs for commercial-scale carbon capture.             89
  • Table 25. Estimated costs of capture of one metric ton of carbon dioxide (Co2) by sector.       89
  • Table 26. Cost of CO2 transported at different flowrates  90
  • Table 27. Key Milestones in Carbon Market Development                91
  • Table 28.Carbon Credit Prices by Market.   91
  • Table 29. Carbon Credit Project Types.         92
  • Table 30. Life Cycle Assessment of CCUS Technologies   94
  • Table 31. Environmental Impact Assessment for CCUS Technologies.   94
  • Table 32. Comparison of CO₂ capture technologies.           97
  • Table 33. Typical conditions and performance for different capture technologies.         100
  • Table 34. Conditions and Performance for Capture Technologies              101
  • Table 35. Carbon Capture Technology Providers for Existing Large-Scale Projects.        103
  • Table 36. Capture Percentages by technology.        106
  • Table 37. Metrics for CO2 Capture Agents. 109
  • Table 38. Energy consumption by technology.         110
  • Table 39. Technology Readiness of Carbon capture Technologies.            111
  • Table 40. Global CCUS Facilities Pipeline   112
  • Table 41. PSCC technologies.             113
  • Table 42. Point source examples.     114
  • Table 43. Comparison of point-source CO₂ capture systems        114
  • Table 44. Global point source CO2 capture capacities      117
  • Table 45. Blue hydrogen projects.    123
  • Table 46. Commercial CO₂ capture systems for blue H2. 124
  • Table 47. Market players in blue hydrogen. 124
  • Table 48. CCUS Projects in the Cement Sector.      126
  • Table 49. Carbon capture technologies in the cement sector.      127
  • Table 50. Cost and technological status of carbon capture in the cement sector.           128
  • Table 51. Assessment of carbon capture materials              130
  • Table 52. Chemical solvents used in post-combustion.   133
  • Table 53. Comparison of key chemical solvent-based systems. 134
  • Table 54. Chemical absorption solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects.    135
  • Table 55.Amine Solvent Carbon Capture Technology Providers for Post-Combustion Capture              136
  • Table 56.Comparison of key physical absorption solvents.             137
  • Table 57.Physical solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects.  138
  • Table 58. Emerging solvents for carbon capture     139
  • Table 59. Emerging Solvents for Carbon Capture. 140
  • Table 60. Oxygen separation technologies for oxy-fuel combustion.        143
  • Table 61. Large-scale oxyfuel CCUS cement projects.       144
  • Table 62. Commercially available physical solvents for pre-combustion carbon capture.        148
  • Table 63. Main capture processes and their separation technologies.    148
  • Table 64. Absorption methods for CO2 capture overview.               149
  • Table 65. Commercially available physical solvents used in CO2 absorption.  151
  • Table 66. Adsorption methods for CO2 capture overview.               153
  • Table 67. Solid sorbents explored for carbon capture.       155
  • Table 68. Carbon-based adsorbents for CO₂ capture.        157
  • Table 69. Polymer-based adsorbents.           158
  • Table 70. Solid sorbents for post-combustion CO₂ capture.          160
  • Table 71. Emerging Solid Sorbent Systems.               160
  • Table 72. Membrane-based methods for CO2 capture overview.               162
  • Table 73. Comparison of membrane materials for CCUS 164
  • Table 74. Commercial status of membranes in carbon capture   165
  • Table 75. Membranes for pre-combustion capture.             168
  • Table 76. Status of cryogenic CO₂ capture technologies. 173
  • Table 77. Cryogenic Direct Air Capture Companies             174
  • Table 78. Benefits and drawbacks of microalgae carbon capture.             179
  • Table 79. Comparison of main separation technologies.  180
  • Table 80. Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separation technologies          181
  • Table 81. Opportunities and Barriers by sector.      181
  • Table 82. DAC technologies.                186
  • Table 83. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC. 189
  • Table 84. Advantages of DAC as a CO2 removal strategy. 189
  • Table 85. Potential for DAC removal versus other carbon removal methods.      190
  • Table 86. Companies developing airflow equipment integration with DAC.         196
  • Table 87. Companies developing Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) technologies.       196
  • Table 88. Companies developing regeneration methods for DAC technologies.               197
  • Table 89. DAC companies and technologies.           199
  • Table 90. Global capacity of direct air capture facilities.  200
  • Table 91. DAC technology developers and production (2026)      200
  • Table 92. DAC projects in development.      202
  • Table 93. DACCS Carbon Removal Capacity Forecast — Base Case (Mtpa CO₂), 2024–2047 202
  • Table 94. DACCS Carbon Removal Capacity Forecast — Optimistic Case (Mtpa CO₂), 2030–2047    203
  • Table 95. Costs summary for DAC.  203
  • Table 96. Typical cost contributions of the main components of a DACCS system.       205
  • Table 97. Cost estimates of DAC.     208
  • Table 98. Challenges for DAC technology.  209
  • Table 99. DAC companies and technologies.           212
  • Table 100. Example CO2 utilization pathways.        213
  • Table 101. Markets for Direct Air Capture and Storage (DACCS). 215
  • Table 116. AI Applications in Carbon Capture.        218
  • Table 117. Renewable Energy Integration in Carbon Capture.       219
  • Table 118. Mobile Carbon Capture Applications.  219
  • Table 119. Carbon Capture Retrofitting.      220
  • Table 124.Market Drivers for Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR).      221
  • Table 125. CDR versus CCUS              222
  • Table 126. Status and Potential of CDR Technologies.       223
  • Table 127. Main CDR methods.         224
  • Table 128. Novel CDR Methods         225
  • Table 129.Carbon Dioxide Removal Technology Benchmarking  226
  • Table 130. CDR Value Chain.              227
  • Table 131. Engineered Carbon Dioxide Removal Value Chain       228
  • Table 132. Carbon pricing and carbon markets       232
  • Table 133. Carbon Removal vs Emission Reduction Offsets.         233
  • Table 134. Carbon Crediting Programs.       234
  • Table 135. Channels for Purchasing Voluntary Carbon Credits    237
  • Table 136. Voluntary Carbon Credits Trading Platforms and Exchanges.               238
  • Table 137. Voluntary Carbon Credits Key Market Players and Projects.  239
  • Table 138. Nature-Based Solutions Market Dynamics.      240
  • Table 139. Voluntary Carbon Credits Pricing by Category and Project Type.        241
  • Table 140. Price Range Analysis by Project Quality and Type:        242
  • Table 141. Compliance Carbon Credits Key Market Players and Projects.            243
  • Table 142. Comparison of Voluntary and Compliance Carbon Credits.  243
  • Table 143. Durable Carbon Removal Buyers.           244
  • Table 144. Prices of CDR Credits.     245
  • Table 145. Major Corporate Carbon Credit Commitments.            246
  • Table 146. Key Carbon Market Regulations and Support Mechanisms.  246
  • Table 147. Carbon credit prices by company and technology.      247
  • Table 148. Carbon Credit Exchanges and Trading Platforms.         248
  • Table 149. OTC Carbon Market Characteristics.    249
  • Table 150. Challenges and Risks.    251
  • Table 151. TRL of Biomass Conversion Processes and Products by Feedstock.                253
  • Table 152. BiCRS feedstocks.             254
  • Table 153. BiCRS conversion pathways.      255
  • Table 154. BiCRS Technological Challenges.            256
  • Table 155. CO₂ capture technologies for BECCS.  261
  • Table 156. Existing and planned capacity for sequestration of biogenic carbon.              263
  • Table 157. Existing facilities with capture and/or geologic sequestration of biogenic CO2.       263
  • Table 158. Challenges of BECCS      266
  • Table 159. Ex Situ Mineralization CDR Methods.    267
  • Table 160. Source Materials for Ex Situ Mineralization.      268
  • Table 161. Companies in CO₂-derived Concrete.   270
  • Table 162. Enhanced Weathering Applications.     272
  • Table 163. Enhanced Weathering Materials and Processes.          273
  • Table 164. Enhanced Weathering Companies         273
  • Table 165. Trends and Opportunities in Enhanced Weathering.   274
  • Table 166. Challenges and Risks in Enhanced Weathering.            274
  • Table 167. Cost analysis of enhanced weathering.               275
  • Table 168. Nature-based CDR approaches.              277
  • Table 169. Comparison of A/R and BECCS.               278
  • Table 170. Forest Carbon Removal Projects.            279
  • Table 171. Companies in Robotics in A/R.  280
  • Table 172. Trends and Opportunities in Afforestation/Reforestation.       281
  • Table 173.Challenges and Risks in Afforestation/Reforestation. 282
  • Table 174. Soil carbon sequestration practices.     284
  • Table 175. Soil sampling and analysis methods.   285
  • Table 176. Remote sensing and modeling techniques.      286
  • Table 177. Carbon credit protocols and standards.             286
  • Table 178. Trends and opportunities in soil carbon sequestration (SCS).              286
  • Table 179. Key aspects of soil carbon credits.         287
  • Table 180. Challenges and Risks in SCS.     288
  • Table 181. Summary of key properties of biochar. 293
  • Table 182. Biochar physicochemical and morphological properties         293
  • Table 183. Biochar feedstocks-source, carbon content, and characteristics.    295
  • Table 184. Biochar production technologies, description, advantages and disadvantages.    296
  • Table 185. Comparison of slow and fast pyrolysis for biomass.  298
  • Table 186. Comparison of thermochemical processes for biochar production.                300
  • Table 187. Biochar production equipment manufacturers.            300
  • Table 188. Competitive materials and technologies that can also earn carbon credits.              303
  • Table 189. Bio-oil-based CDR pros and cons.          304
  • Table 190. Ocean-based CDR methods.     308
  • Table 191. Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Chart for Ocean-based CDR.        308
  • Table 192. Benchmarking of Ocean-based CDR Methods.              309
  • Table 193. Ocean-based CDR: Biotic Methods.      310
  • Table 194. Market Players in Ocean-based CDR.   316
  • Table 195. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$).              320
  • Table 196. Comparison of Low Carbon CO2 vs Incumbent Low Carbon Technologies.               323
  • Table 197. Carbon utilization business models.     324
  • Table 198. CO2 utilization and removal pathways.                325
  • Table 199. Market challenges for CO2 utilization. 327
  • Table 200. Example CO2 utilization pathways.        328
  • Table 201. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.            330
  • Table 202. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.            334
  • Table 203. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages.            338
  • Table 204. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers.             340
  • Table 205. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies.   342
  • Table 206. Comparison of emerging CO₂ utilization applications.              343
  • Table 207. Main routes to CO₂-fuels.              345
  • Table 208. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels.               346
  • Table 209. Main routes to CO₂ -fuels              348
  • Table 210.Comparison of e-fuels to fossil and biofuels.   349
  • Table 211. Existing and future CO₂-derived synfuels (kerosene, diesel, and gasoline) projects.. :         351
  • Table 212. CO2-Derived Methane Projects.               354
  • Table 213. Power-to-Methane projects worldwide.               354
  • Table 214. Power-to-Methane projects.        357
  • Table 215. Microalgae products and prices.              359
  • Table 216. Syngas Production Options for E-fuels.               360
  • Table 217. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches.         361
  • Table 218. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products.        362
  • Table 219. CO₂ utilization forecast for fuels by fuel type (million tonnes CO₂/year), 2027–2047            364
  • Table 220. Global revenue forecast for CO₂-derived fuels by fuel type (million US$), 2027–2047         364
  • Table 221. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2.  367
  • Table 222.CO₂-derived Chemicals: Thermochemical Pathways. 368
  • Table 223. Thermochemical Methods: CO₂-derived Methanol.    369
  • Table 224. CO₂-derived Methanol Projects.               369
  • Table 225. CO₂-Derived Methanol: Economic and Market Analysis (Next 5-10 Years).  370
  • Table 226. Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction Technologies.              370
  • Table 227. Comparison of RWGS and SOEC Co-electrolysis Routes.      371
  • Table 228. Cost Comparison of CO₂ Electrochemical Technologies.        371
  • Table 229. Technology Readiness Level (TRL): CO₂U Chemicals.               377
  • Table 230. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products.         378
  • Table 231. CO₂ utilization forecast in chemicals by end-use (million tonnes CO₂/year), 2027–2047  380
  • Table 232. Global revenue forecast for CO₂-derived chemicals by end-use (million US$), 2027–2047                380
  • Table 233. Carbon sequestered per tonne of output, by route       382
  • Table 234. CCU-derived vs conventional pricing ($/kg unless noted)       382
  • Table 235. Total CCU-derived carbon materials market revenue 382
  • Table 236. Market revenue by output material, base case ($M)    383
  • Table 237. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector       386
  • Table 238. Prefabricated versus ready-mixed concrete markets .               390
  • Table 239. CO₂ utilization in concrete curing or mixing.    390
  • Table 240. CO₂ utilization business models in building materials.             392
  • Table 241. Companies in CO2 derived building materials.              395
  • Table 242. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials.       396
  • Table 243. CO₂ utilization forecast in building materials by end-use (million tonnes CO₂/year), 2027–2047    397
  • Table 244. Global revenue forecast for CO₂-derived building materials by product (million US$), 2027–2047    398
  • Table 245. Enrichment Technology. 399
  • Table 246. Food and Feed Production from CO₂.   403
  • Table 247. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting.   403
  • Table 248. CO₂ utilization forecast in biological yield-boosting by end-use (million tonnes CO₂/year), 2027–2047      404
  • Table 249. Global revenue forecast for CO₂ use in biological yield-boosting by end-use (million US$), 2027–2047      404
  • Table 250. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production.               405
  • Table 251. CO₂ utilization forecast in enhanced oil recovery (million tonnes CO₂/year), 2027–2047  407
  • Table 252. Global revenue forecast for CO₂-enhanced oil recovery (billion US$), 2025-2046. 407
  • Table 253. CO2 EOR/Storage Challenges.  410
  • Table 254. Digital and IoT Applications in Carbon Utilization.        411
  • Table 255. Blockchain Applications in Carbon Trading.     411
  • Table 256. Carbon Utilization Strategies in Data Centers.                412
  • Table 257. CCU Integration in Smart City Infrastructure.  413
  • Table 258. CO2-derived Materials in 3D Printing.   414
  • Table 259. CO2 Applications in Energy Storage.     414
  • Table 260. CO2 Applications in Electronics Manufacturing.          415
  • Table 261. Storage and utilization of CO2.  416
  • Table 262. Mechanisms of subsurface CO₂ trapping.         418
  • Table 263. Global depleted reservoir storage projects.      419
  • Table 264. Global CO₂ ECBM (Enhanced Coal-Bed Methane) Storage Projects (2026) 419
  • Table 265. CO2 EOR/storage projects.          420
  • Table 266. Global storage sites-saline aquifer projects.    421
  • Table 267. Global storage capacity estimates, by region. 425
  • Table 268. MRV Technologies and Costs in CO₂ Storage. 427
  • Table 269.  Carbon storage challenges.       427
  • Table 270. Status of CO₂ Storage Projects. 428
  • Table 271. Types of CO₂ -EOR designs.         431
  • Table 272. CO₂ capture with CO₂ -EOR facilities.   432
  • Table 273. CO₂ -EOR companies.    433
  • Table 274. Carbon Capture Storage Monitoring Technologies.      436
  • Table 275. Storage Site Selection Criteria.  438
  • Table 276. Phases of CO₂ for transportation.            440
  • Table 277. CO₂ transportation methods and conditions. 440
  • Table 278. Status of CO₂ transportation methods in CCS projects.           441
  • Table 279. CO₂ pipelines Technical challenges.     441
  • Table 280. Cost comparison of CO₂ transportation methods        443
  • Table 281. Components of Smart Pipeline Networks.         444
  • Table 282. Components of CO2 Transportation Hubs.       445
  • Table 283. CO2 Pipeline Safety Systems and Monitoring. 446
  • Table 284. Emerging CO2 Transportation Technologies.   447
  • Table 285. CO₂ transport operators.               447
  • Table 286. List of abbreviations.        702
  • Table 287. Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Examples. 704

 

List of Figures

  • Figure 1. Carbon emissions by sector.          36
  • Figure 2. Overview of CCUS market 37
  • Figure 3. CCUS business model.      39
  • Figure 4. Pathways for CO2 use.        39
  • Figure 7. Carbon Capture, Utilization, & Storage (CCUS) Market Map.    50
  • Figure 10. CCUS Value Chain.            56
  • Figure 11. Schematic of CCUS process.      74
  • Figure 12. Pathways for CO2 utilization and removal.         75
  • Figure 13. A pre-combustion capture system.         80
  • Figure 14. Carbon dioxide utilization and removal cycle.  83
  • Figure 15. Various pathways for CO2 utilization.    84
  • Figure 16. Example of underground carbon dioxide storage.         85
  • Figure 17. Transport of CCS technologies. 86
  • Figure 18. Railroad car for liquid CO₂ transport       88
  • Figure 21. Cost estimates for long-distance CO2 transport.          91
  • Figure 22. CO2 capture and separation technology.            98
  • Figure 26. SMR process flow diagram of steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage (SMR-CCS).    119
  • Figure 27. Process flow diagram of autothermal reforming with a carbon capture and storage (ATR-CCS) plant.  120
  • Figure 28. POX process flow diagram.          121
  • Figure 29. Process flow diagram for a typical SE-SMR.       122
  • Figure 30. Post-combustion carbon capture process.        132
  • Figure 31. Post-combustion CO2 Capture in a Coal-Fired Power Plant. 132
  • Figure 32. Oxy-combustion carbon capture process.         144
  • Figure 33. Process schematic of chemical looping.             146
  • Figure 34. Liquid or supercritical CO2 carbon capture process.  147
  • Figure 35. Pre-combustion carbon capture process.          147
  • Figure 36. Amine-based absorption technology.    151
  • Figure 37. Pressure swing absorption technology. 155
  • Figure 38. Membrane separation technology.           163
  • Figure 39. Liquid or supercritical CO2 (cryogenic) distillation.      172
  • Figure 40. Cryocap™ process.             174
  • Figure 41. Calix advanced calcination reactor.        176
  • Figure 42. LEILAC process.   177
  • Figure 43. Fuel Cell CO2 Capture diagram.               178
  • Figure 44. Microalgal carbon capture.           179
  • Figure 45. Cost of carbon capture.  183
  • Figure 46. CO2 capture capacity to 2030, MtCO2.               184
  • Figure 47. Capacity of large-scale CO2 capture projects, current and planned vs. the Net Zero Scenario, 2020-2030.              185
  • Figure 48. CO2 captured from air using liquid and solid sorbent DAC plants, storage, and reuse.        188
  • Figure 50.  DAC technologies.             192
  • Figure 51. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system.               193
  • Figure 52. Climeworks’ first commercial direct air capture (DAC) plant, based in Hinwil, Switzerland.                194
  • Figure 53.  Flow diagram for solid sorbent DAC.     194
  • Figure 54. Direct air capture based on high temperature liquid sorbent by Carbon Engineering.           195
  • Figure 55. Schematic of costs of DAC technologies.           206
  • Figure 56. DAC cost breakdown and comparison. 207
  • Figure 57. Operating costs of generic liquid and solid-based DAC systems.       209
  • Figure 58. Co2 utilization pathways and products.               215
  • Figure 74. Process Flow of Carbon Trading: Total Carbon Credits (CCs), amounting to CCB (MtCO2e) = (c) – EB, are issued to firm with CHG emissions below the allowance. These credits can be subsequently sold to firm with emissions exceeding the allowance. In the representation, the latter firm must purchase total credits equivalent to CCA (MtCO2e) = EA – (c).        236
  • Figure 75. BiCRS Value Chain.           254
  • Figure 76. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) process.             258
  • Figure 77. Capture of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere using bricks of calcium hydroxide.             269
  • Figure 78. Carbon capture using mineral carbonation.      270
  • Figure 79. SWOT analysis: enhanced weathering. 276
  • Figure 80. SWOT analysis: afforestation/reforestation.     283
  • Figure 81. SWOT analysis: SCS.        289
  • Figure 82. Schematic of biochar production.           290
  • Figure 83. Biochars from different sources, and by pyrolyzation at different temperatures.      291
  • Figure 84. Compressed biochar.       294
  • Figure 85. Biochar production diagram.      296
  • Figure 86. Pyrolysis process and by-products in agriculture.         298
  • Figure 87. SWOT analysis: Biochar for CDR.             307
  • Figure 88. SWOT analysis: Ocean-based CDR.       315
  • Figure 89. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages.               317
  • Figure 90. Applications for CO2.       319
  • Figure 91. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector.   320
  • Figure 92. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services.          326
  • Figure 93. Co2 utilization pathways and products.               329
  • Figure 94. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion.     333
  • Figure 95. Electrochemical CO₂ reduction products.          334
  • Figure 96. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process.   337
  • Figure 97. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels. 338
  • Figure 98. Econic catalyst systems.                340
  • Figure 99. Mineral carbonation processes. 342
  • Figure 100. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates.         347
  • Figure 101.  Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel.     347
  • Figure 102. SWOT analysis: e-fuels.                353
  • Figure 103. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol.      358
  • Figure 104. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c           361
  • Figure 106.  Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways.            367
  • Figure 107.  Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials               376
  • Figure 108. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials.     384
  • Figure 109. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector.                385
  • Figure 110. Carbon8 Systems’ ACT process.             389
  • Figure 111. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process.  389
  • Figure 112. Algal cultivation in the desert.  400
  • Figure 113. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria.              402
  • Figure 114. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR.     406
  • Figure 116. Carbon mineralization pathways.          409
  • Figure 117. CO2 Storage Overview - Site Options  418
  • Figure 118.  CO2 injection into a saline formation while producing brine for beneficial use.    421
  • Figure 119. Subsurface storage cost estimation.   435
  • Figure 120. Air Products production process.          456
  • Figure 121. ALGIECEL PhotoBioReactor.     461
  • Figure 122. Schematic of carbon capture solar project.    468
  • Figure 123. Aspiring Materials method.        469
  • Figure 124. Aymium’s Biocarbon production.          472
  • Figure 125. Capchar prototype pyrolysis kiln.          492
  • Figure 126. Carbonminer technology.           499
  • Figure 127. Carbon Blade system.   504
  • Figure 128. CarbonCure Technology.             512
  • Figure 129. Direct Air Capture Process.        514
  • Figure 130. CRI process.        518
  • Figure 131. PCCSD Project in China.             532
  • Figure 132. Orca facility.         533
  • Figure 133. Process flow scheme of Compact Carbon Capture Plant.    538
  • Figure 134. Colyser process.               540
  • Figure 135. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic.         548
  • Figure 136. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer. 549
  • Figure 137. Fuel Cell Carbon Capture.          571
  • Figure 138. Topsoe's SynCORTM autothermal reforming technology.      581
  • Figure 139. Heirloom DAC facilities.              584
  • Figure 140. Carbon Capture balloon.            586
  • Figure 141. Holy Grail DAC system. 588
  • Figure 142. INERATEC unit.   594
  • Figure 143. Infinitree swing method.              595
  • Figure 144. Audi/Krajete unit.              601
  • Figure 145. Made of Air's HexChar panels. 611
  • Figure 146. Mosaic Materials MOFs.              621
  • Figure 147. Neustark modular plant.             626
  • Figure 148. OCOchem’s Carbon Flux Electrolyzer.                634
  • Figure 149. ZerCaL™ process.              636
  • Figure 150. CCS project at Arthit offshore gas field.             647
  • Figure 151. RepAir technology.           654
  • Figure 152. Aker (SLB Capturi) carbon capture system.    669
  • Figure 153. Soletair Power unit.         671
  • Figure 154. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production.    678
  • Figure 155. CALF-20 has been integrated into a rotating CO2 capture machine (left), which operates inside a CO2 plant module (right).   680
  • Figure 156. Takavator.               683
  • Figure 157. O12 Reactor.        688
  • Figure 158. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials.               688
  • Figure 159. CO2 made car part.        689
  • Figure 160. Molecular sieving membrane.  691

 

 

 

 

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