The Global Li-ion and Next-Gen Battery Market 2026-2036

1             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY            50

• 1.1        The Li-ion Battery Market in 2025     50
• 1.2        Global Market Forecasts to 2036     51
  • 1.2.1    Addressable markets                51
  • 1.2.2    Li-ion battery pack demand for XEV (GWh) 52
    • 1.2.2.1 Battery Chemistry Distribution by Vehicle Type 2036         54
    • 1.2.2.2 OEM Strategies 2036 54
  • 1.2.3    Li-ion battery market value for XEV ($B)       54
    • 1.2.3.1 Market Value Dynamics          56
    • 1.2.3.2 Price Trajectory Drivers            56
  • 1.2.4    Semi-solid-state battery market forecast (GWh)    57
    • 1.2.4.1 Technology Roadmap              60
    • 1.2.4.2 Competitive Positioning         61
    • 1.2.4.3 Technology Evolution 2025-2036     62
  • 1.2.5    Semi-solid-state battery market value ($B)               63
    • 1.2.5.1 Pricing Dynamics        64
  • 1.2.6    Solid-state battery market forecast (GWh) 65
  • 1.2.7    Sodium-ion battery market forecast (GWh)               68
    • 1.2.7.1 Growth Analysis          70
  • 1.2.8    Sodium-ion battery market value ($B)          71
    • 1.2.8.1 Pricing Analysis            72
    • 1.2.8.2 Profitability Outlook for Sodium-Ion Manufacturers            73
  • 1.2.9    Li-ion battery demand versus beyond Li-ion batteries demand   73
    • 1.2.9.1 Market Transition Analysis    74
    • 1.2.9.2 Long-Term Outlook (Post-2036)        75
    • 1.2.9.3 Why Beyond Li-ion Remains Limited Through 2036             75
    • 1.2.9.4 Market Share Trajectories by Technology     76
  • 1.2.10 BEV car cathode forecast (GWh)      77
  • 1.2.11 BEV anode forecast (GWh)   79
  • 1.2.12 BEV anode forecast ($B)        81
  • 1.2.13 EV cathode forecast (GWh)  82
  • 1.2.14 EV Anode forecast (GWh)      83
  • 1.2.15 Advanced anode forecast (GWh)      84
  • 1.2.16 Advanced anode forecast (S$B)        86
    • 1.2.16.1            Market Dynamics 2036           88
• 1.3        The global market for advanced Li-ion batteries     88
  • 1.3.1    Electric vehicles           89
    • 1.3.1.1 Market overview           89
    • 1.3.1.2 Battery Electric Vehicles        89
    • 1.3.1.3 Electric buses, vans and trucks         91
      • 1.3.1.3.1           Electric medium and heavy duty trucks       91
      • 1.3.1.3.2           Electric light commercial vehicles (LCVs)  91
      • 1.3.1.3.3           Electric buses               92
      • 1.3.1.3.4           Micro EVs         93
    • 1.3.1.4 Electric off-road           94
      • 1.3.1.4.1           Construction vehicles              94
      • 1.3.1.4.2           Electric trains 96
      • 1.3.1.4.3           Electric boats 96
    • 1.3.1.5 Market demand and forecasts           98
    • 1.3.1.6 Market Analysis           98
      • 1.3.1.6.1           BEV Passenger Cars - Dominant Segment  98
      • 1.3.1.6.2           PHEV Passenger Cars - Transitional Technology:   99
      • 1.3.1.6.3           Profitability Analysis 2036    102
      • 1.3.1.6.4           Electric Buses               103
      • 1.3.1.6.5           Delivery Vans 104
      • 1.3.1.6.6           Medium-Duty Trucks 104
      • 1.3.1.6.7           Heavy-Duty Trucks     105
      • 1.3.1.6.8           Micro-EVs         106
        • 1.3.1.6.8.1      Micro-EV Market Overview    107
  • 1.3.2    Grid storage    110
    • 1.3.2.1 Market overview           110
    • 1.3.2.2 Technologies  110
    • 1.3.2.3 Market demand and forecasts           111
    • 1.3.2.4 Utility-Scale Grid Storage      112
      • 1.3.2.4.1           Application Categories            112
    • 1.3.2.5 Key Market Drivers      113
    • 1.3.2.6 Commercial & Industrial (C&I) Grid Storage              114
      • 1.3.2.6.1           Application Categories:          114
    • 1.3.2.7 Residential Grid Storage         116
      • 1.3.2.7.1           Application Categories            116
      • 1.3.2.7.2           Market Outlook            118
  • 1.3.3    Consumer electronics             118
    • 1.3.3.1 Market overview           118
    • 1.3.3.2 Technologies  119
    • 1.3.3.3 Market demand and forecasts           119
  • 1.3.4    Stationary batteries   120
    • 1.3.4.1 Market overview           120
    • 1.3.4.2 Technologies  121
    • 1.3.4.3 Market demand and forecasts           121
• 1.4        Market drivers                122
• 1.5        Battery market megatrends  123
• 1.6        Advanced materials for batteries      125
• 1.7        Motivation for battery development beyond lithium            129
• 1.8        Battery chemistries   132

 

2             LI-ION BATTERIES       136

• 2.1        Types of Lithium Batteries     139
• 2.2        Anode materials          141
  • 2.2.1    Graphite            143
  • 2.2.2    Lithium Titanate           143
  • 2.2.3    Lithium Metal 143
  • 2.2.4    Silicon anodes              143
• 2.3        SWOT analysis              144
• 2.4        Trends in the Li-ion battery market  145
• 2.5        Li-ion technology roadmap  145
• 2.6        Silicon anodes              147
  • 2.6.1    Benefits             148
  • 2.6.2    Silicon anode performance  149
  • 2.6.3    Development in li-ion batteries          151
    • 2.6.3.1 Manufacturing silicon              152
    • 2.6.3.2 Commercial production         153
    • 2.6.3.3 Costs  155
    • 2.6.3.4 Value chain     155
    • 2.6.3.5 Markets and applications      156
      • 2.6.3.5.1           EVs       157
      • 2.6.3.5.2           Consumer electronics             158
      • 2.6.3.5.3           Energy Storage              159
      • 2.6.3.5.4           Portable Power Tools 159
      • 2.6.3.5.5           Emergency Backup Power     160
    • 2.6.3.6 Future outlook              160
  • 2.6.4    Consumption 161
    • 2.6.4.1 By anode material type            161
    • 2.6.4.2 By end use market      163
  • 2.6.5    Alloy anode materials              167
  • 2.6.6    Silicon-carbon composites  167
  • 2.6.7    Silicon oxides and coatings  168
  • 2.6.8    Carbon nanotubes in Li-ion  168
  • 2.6.9    Graphene coatings for Li-ion               169
  • 2.6.10 Prices  169
  • 2.6.11 Companies     176
• 2.7        Li-ion electrolytes        177
• 2.8        Cathodes          178
  • 2.8.1    Materials           178
    • 2.8.1.1 High and Ultra-High nickel cathode materials         179
      • 2.8.1.1.1           Types   179
      • 2.8.1.1.2           Benefits             180
      • 2.8.1.1.3           Stability             180
      • 2.8.1.1.4           Single Crystal Cathodes         182
      • 2.8.1.1.5           Commercial activity  183
      • 2.8.1.1.6           Manufacturing              184
      • 2.8.1.1.7           High manganese content       184
    • 2.8.1.2 Zero-cobalt NMx          184
      • 2.8.1.2.1           Overview           185
      • 2.8.1.2.2           Ultra-high nickel, zero-cobalt cathodes       185
      • 2.8.1.2.3           Extending the operating voltage        185
      • 2.8.1.2.4           Operating NMC cathodes at high voltages 186
    • 2.8.1.3 Lithium-Manganese-Rich (Li-Mn-Rich, LMR-NMC)               186
      • 2.8.1.3.1           Li-Mn-rich cathodes LMR-NMC         187
      • 2.8.1.3.2           Stability             187
      • 2.8.1.3.3           Energy density               188
      • 2.8.1.3.4           Commercialization    189
      • 2.8.1.3.5           Hybrid battery chemistry design for manganese-rich         191
    • 2.8.1.4 Lithium Cobalt Oxide(LiCoO2) — LCO          192
    • 2.8.1.5 Lithium Iron Phosphate(LiFePO4) — LFP     193
    • 2.8.1.6 Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4) — LMO          194
    • 2.8.1.7 Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO2) — NMC 195
    • 2.8.1.8 Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO2) — NCA       196
    • 2.8.1.9 Lithium manganese phosphate (LiMnP)      197
    • 2.8.1.10            Lithium manganese iron phosphate (LiMnFePO4 or LMFP)             197
      • 2.8.1.10.1        Key characteristics    197
      • 2.8.1.10.2        LMFP energy density 199
      • 2.8.1.10.3        Costs  200
      • 2.8.1.10.4        Saft phosphate-based cathodes       201
      • 2.8.1.10.5        Commercialization    201
      • 2.8.1.10.6        Challenges      202
      • 2.8.1.10.7        LMFP (lithium manganese iron phosphate) market              203
      • 2.8.1.10.8        Companies     203
    • 2.8.1.11            Lithium nickel manganese oxide (LNMO)    205
      • 2.8.1.11.1        Overview           205
      • 2.8.1.11.2        High-voltage spinel cathode LNMO 205
      • 2.8.1.11.3        LNMO energy density               206
      • 2.8.1.11.4        Cathode chemistry selection              207
      • 2.8.1.11.5        LNMO (lithium nickel manganese oxide) high-voltage spinel cathodes cost       208
    • 2.8.1.12            Graphite and LTO        209
    • 2.8.1.13            Silicon 209
    • 2.8.1.14            Lithium metal 210
  • 2.8.2    Alternative Cathode Production        210
    • 2.8.2.1 Production/Synthesis               210
    • 2.8.2.2 Commercial development    212
    • 2.8.2.3 Recycling cathodes    213
  • 2.8.3    Comparison of key lithium-ion cathode materials 215
  • 2.8.4    Emerging cathode material synthesis methods      215
  • 2.8.5    Cathode coatings        215
• 2.9        Binders and conductive additives    216
  • 2.9.1    Materials           216
• 2.10     Separators       217
  • 2.10.1 Materials           217
• 2.11     High-Performance Lithium-Ion Systems: Approaching 350 Wh/kg            217
  • 2.11.1 Energy Density Evolution and Current State              218
  • 2.11.2 Pathways to 350+ Wh/kg        219
    • 2.11.2.1            Cathode Advances     219
    • 2.11.2.2            Anode Advances          220
    • 2.11.2.3            Electrolyte and Cell Design Optimization   221
  • 2.11.3 Performance Projections and Technology Roadmap          222
    • 2.11.3.1            Critical Dependencies and Risk Factors      222
  • 2.11.4 Commercial Deployment Timeline 223
• 2.12     PFAS-Free Battery Additives and Regulatory Transitions  225
  • 2.12.1 Global Regulatory Trend Analysis    227
  • 2.12.2 PFAS Materials in Current Battery Manufacturing 227
  • 2.12.3 Non-PFAS Cathode Binders - The Critical Challenge           228
  • 2.12.4 Non-PFAS Cathode Binder Technologies     229
    • 2.12.4.1            Polyacrylic Acid (PAA) and Lithium Polyacrylate (Li-PAA)  229
    • 2.12.4.2            Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) and Modified Cellulose Derivatives      230
    • 2.12.4.3            Polyacrylamide (PAM) and Acrylamide Copolymers            231
    • 2.12.4.4            Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) and Synthetic Rubber Derivatives         232
    • 2.12.4.5            Hybrid and Composite Binder Systems        232
  • 2.12.5 PFAS in Electrolyte Additives - Critical Performance Trade-offs   234
    • 2.12.5.1            Major PFAS Electrolyte Additives      234
  • 2.12.6 Market Analysis           237
• 2.13     Platinum group metals            240
• 2.14     Li-ion battery market players               241
• 2.15     Li-ion recycling              241
  • 2.15.1 Comparison of recycling techniques              243
  • 2.15.2 Hydrometallurgy          245
    • 2.15.2.1            Method overview         245
      • 2.15.2.1.1        Solvent extraction       246
    • 2.15.2.2            SWOT analysis              247
  • 2.15.3 Pyrometallurgy              248
    • 2.15.3.1            Method overview         248
    • 2.15.3.2            SWOT analysis              249
  • 2.15.4 Direct recycling             250
    • 2.15.4.1            Method overview         250
      • 2.15.4.1.1        Electrolyte separation              251
      • 2.15.4.1.2        Separating cathode and anode materials   251
      • 2.15.4.1.3        Binder removal             252
      • 2.15.4.1.4        Relithiation      252
      • 2.15.4.1.5        Cathode recovery and rejuvenation                253
      • 2.15.4.1.6        Hydrometallurgical-direct hybrid recycling                253
    • 2.15.4.2            SWOT analysis              254
  • 2.15.5 Other methods             254
    • 2.15.5.1            Mechanochemical Pretreatment      254
    • 2.15.5.2            Electrochemical Method        255
    • 2.15.5.3            Ionic Liquids   255
  • 2.15.6 Recycling of Specific Components 256
    • 2.15.6.1            Anode (Graphite)         256
    • 2.15.6.2            Cathode            256
    • 2.15.6.3            Electrolyte        256
  • 2.15.7 Recycling of Beyond Li-ion Batteries               257
    • 2.15.7.1            Conventional vs Emerging Processes            257
• 2.16     Global revenues           258

 

3             LITHIUM-METAL BATTERIES 280

• 3.1        Technology description           280
• 3.2        Solid-state batteries and lithium metal anodes      281
• 3.3        Increasing energy density      282
• 3.4        Lithium-metal anodes             283
  • 3.4.1    Overview           283
• 3.5        Challenges      284
• 3.6        Energy density               284
• 3.7        Anode-less Cells         285
  • 3.7.1    Overview           285
  • 3.7.2    Benefits             285
  • 3.7.3    Key companies             286
• 3.8        Lithium-metal and solid-state batteries       288
• 3.9        Hybrid batteries            288
• 3.10     Applications   290
• 3.11     SWOT analysis              291
• 3.12     Product developers    292

 

4             LITHIUM-SULFUR BATTERIES              294

• 4.1        Technology description           294
• 4.2        Operating principle of lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries            295
  • 4.2.1    Advantages     296
  • 4.2.2    Challenges      296
  • 4.2.3    Commercialization    300
• 4.3        Costs  302
• 4.4        Material composition               303
• 4.5        Lithium intensity          304
• 4.6        Value chain     305
• 4.7        Markets              306
• 4.8        SWOT analysis              307
• 4.9        Global revenues           308
• 4.10     Product developers    312

 

5             LITHIUM TITANATE OXIDE (LTO) AND NIOBATE BATTERIES              313

• 5.1        Technology description           313
  • 5.1.1    Lithium titanate oxide (LTO) 313
  • 5.1.2    Niobium titanium oxide (NTO)            313
    • 5.1.2.1 Niobium tungsten oxide          314
    • 5.1.2.2 Vanadium oxide anodes         315
• 5.2        Global revenues           315
• 5.3        Product developers    320

 

6             SODIUM-ION (NA-ION) BATTERIES 322

• 6.1        Technology description           322
  • 6.1.1    Cathode materials     322
    • 6.1.1.1 Layered transition metal oxides        322
      • 6.1.1.1.1           Types   322
      • 6.1.1.1.2           Cycling performance 323
      • 6.1.1.1.3           Advantages and disadvantages        324
      • 6.1.1.1.4           Market prospects for LO SIB 324
    • 6.1.1.2 Polyanionic materials               324
      • 6.1.1.2.1           Advantages and disadvantages        325
      • 6.1.1.2.2           Types   325
      • 6.1.1.2.3           Market prospects for Poly SIB             326
    • 6.1.1.3 Prussian blue analogues (PBA)          326
      • 6.1.1.3.1           Types   327
      • 6.1.1.3.2           Advantages and disadvantages        328
      • 6.1.1.3.3           Market prospects for PBA-SIB             328
  • 6.1.2    Anode materials          329
    • 6.1.2.1 Hard carbons 329
    • 6.1.2.2 Carbon black 331
    • 6.1.2.3 Graphite            331
    • 6.1.2.4 Carbon nanotubes     335
    • 6.1.2.5 Graphene         336
    • 6.1.2.6 Alloying materials       337
    • 6.1.2.7 Sodium Titanates        338
    • 6.1.2.8 Sodium Metal 338
  • 6.1.3    Electrolytes     338
• 6.2        Comparative analysis with other battery types        339
• 6.3        Cost comparison with Li-ion                340
• 6.4        Materials in sodium-ion battery cells             340
• 6.5        SWOT analysis              342
• 6.6        Global revenues           343
• 6.7        Product developers    351
  • 6.7.1    Battery Manufacturers            351
  • 6.7.2    Large Corporations    351
  • 6.7.3    Automotive Companies          352
  • 6.7.4    Chemicals and Materials Firms         352

 

7             SODIUM-SULFUR BATTERIES             352

• 7.1        Technology description           352
• 7.2        Applications   354
• 7.3        SWOT analysis              354

 

8             ALUMINIUM-ION BATTERIES               356

• 8.1        Technology description           356
• 8.2        SWOT analysis              357
• 8.3        Commercialization    358
• 8.4        Global revenues           359
• 8.5        Product developers    365

 

9             SOLID STATE BATTERIES         367

• 9.1        Technology description           368
  • 9.1.1    Solid-state electrolytes            370
• 9.2        Features and advantages      371
• 9.3        Technical specifications         372
• 9.4        Types   374
• 9.5        Technology Readiness and Manufacturing Status 377
  • 9.5.1    Manufacturing Process Comparison             379
  • 9.5.2    Critical Manufacturing Challenges and Solutions 380
• 9.6        Automotive OEM Strategies and Deployment Timelines   382
• 9.7        Microbatteries               386
  • 9.7.1    Introduction    386
  • 9.7.2    Materials           387
  • 9.7.3    Applications   387
  • 9.7.4    3D designs      387
    • 9.7.4.1 3D printed batteries   388
• 9.8        Bulk type solid-state batteries            388
• 9.9        SWOT analysis              388
• 9.10     Limitations      390
• 9.11     Global revenues           391
• 9.12     Product developers    396

 

10          STRUCTURAL BATTERY COMPOSITES           398

• 10.1     Introduction    398
• 10.2     Materials and Architecture    398
• 10.3     Applications   400
  • 10.3.1 Electric Vehicle Applications              400
  • 10.3.2 Aerospace and Aviation          401
  • 10.3.3 Consumer Electronics and Portable Devices           402
  • 10.3.4 Construction and Infrastructure       402
• 10.4     Technical Challenges               403
  • 10.4.1 Energy Density Limitations   403
  • 10.4.2 Long-term Mechanical and Electrochemical Stability        403
• 10.5     Supply chain  404
• 10.6     Market Forecasts        404
• 10.7     Safety Considerations             405
  • 10.7.1 Safety Challenges       405
• 10.8     Environmental profile of structural battery composites    406

 

11          FLEXIBLE BATTERIES 408

• 11.1     Technology description           408
• 11.2     Technical specifications         410
  • 11.2.1 Approaches to flexibility         410
• 11.3     Flexible electronics    414
• 11.4     Flexible materials        415
• 11.5     Flexible and wearable Metal-sulfur batteries            416
• 11.6     Flexible and wearable Metal-air batteries   417
• 11.7     Flexible Lithium-ion Batteries             417
  • 11.7.1 Types of Flexible/stretchable LIBs    421
    • 11.7.1.1            Flexible planar LiBs   421
    • 11.7.1.2            Flexible Fiber LiBs       421
    • 11.7.1.3            Flexible micro-LiBs    422
    • 11.7.1.4            Stretchable lithium-ion batteries      423
    • 11.7.1.5            Origami and kirigami lithium-ion batteries  425
• 11.8     Flexible Li/S batteries                425
  • 11.8.1 Components  426
  • 11.8.2 Carbon nanomaterials            426
• 11.9     Flexible lithium-manganese dioxide (Li–MnO2) batteries 427
• 11.10  Flexible zinc-based batteries               427
  • 11.10.1              Components  428
    • 11.10.1.1         Anodes              428
    • 11.10.1.2         Cathodes          428
  • 11.10.2              Challenges      428
  • 11.10.3              Flexible zinc-manganese dioxide (Zn–Mn) batteries             429
  • 11.10.4              Flexible silver–zinc (Ag–Zn) batteries              430
  • 11.10.5              Flexible Zn–Air batteries          431
  • 11.10.6              Flexible zinc-vanadium batteries      432
• 11.11  Fiber-shaped batteries             432
  • 11.11.1              Carbon nanotubes     432
  • 11.11.2              Types   433
  • 11.11.3              Applications   434
  • 11.11.4              Challenges      434
• 11.12  Energy harvesting combined with wearable energy storage devices         435
• 11.13  SWOT analysis              437
• 11.14  Global revenues           438
• 11.15  Product developers    440

 

12          TRANSPARENT BATTERIES    443

• 12.1     Technology description           443
• 12.2     Components  444
• 12.3     SWOT analysis              445
• 12.4     Market outlook             446

 

13          DEGRADABLE BATTERIES      447

• 13.1     Technology description           447
• 13.2     Components  448
• 13.3     SWOT analysis              449
• 13.4     Market outlook             450
• 13.5     Product developers    450

 

14          PRINTED BATTERIES 451

• 14.1     Technical specifications         451
• 14.2     Components  452
• 14.3     Design 453
• 14.4     Key features    454
• 14.5     Printable current collectors  454
• 14.6     Printable electrodes  455
• 14.7     Materials           455
• 14.8     Applications   456
• 14.9     Printing techniques    456
• 14.10  Lithium-ion (LIB) printed batteries    458
• 14.11  Zinc-based printed batteries                459
• 14.12  3D Printed batteries   462
  • 14.12.1              3D Printing techniques for battery manufacturing 463
  • 14.12.2              Materials for 3D printed batteries     464
    • 14.12.2.1         Electrode materials   464
    • 14.12.2.2         Electrolyte Materials 465
• 14.13  SWOT analysis              465
• 14.14  Global revenues           466
• 14.15  Product developers    467

 

15          REDOX FLOW BATTERIES      469

• 15.1     Technology description           471
• 15.2     Market Overview          473
• 15.3     Technology Benchmarking - Chemistry Comparison          474
• 15.4     Chemistry Selection Matrix by Application 477
• 15.5     Component Technologies and Cost Reduction Pathways                478
• 15.6     Component Innovation           480
• 15.7     Types   481
  • 15.7.1 Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB)          483
    • 15.7.1.1            Technology description           483
    • 15.7.1.2            SWOT analysis              484
    • 15.7.1.3            Market players               486
  • 15.7.2 Zinc-bromine flow batteries (ZnBr)  487
    • 15.7.2.1            Technology description           487
    • 15.7.2.2            SWOT analysis              488
    • 15.7.2.3            Market players               489
  • 15.7.3 Polysulfide bromine flow batteries (PSB)     490
    • 15.7.3.1            Technology description           490
    • 15.7.3.2            SWOT analysis              491
  • 15.7.4 Iron-chromium flow batteries (ICB) 492
    • 15.7.4.1            Technology description           492
    • 15.7.4.2            SWOT analysis              493
    • 15.7.4.3            Market players               494
  • 15.7.5 All-Iron flow batteries                495
    • 15.7.5.1            Technology description           495
    • 15.7.5.2            SWOT analysis              496
    • 15.7.5.3            Market players               497
  • 15.7.6 Zinc-iron (Zn-Fe) flow batteries          498
    • 15.7.6.1            Technology description           498
    • 15.7.6.2            SWOT analysis              499
    • 15.7.6.3            Market players               500
  • 15.7.7 Hydrogen-bromine (H-Br) flow batteries      500
    • 15.7.7.1            Technology description           500
    • 15.7.7.2            SWOT analysis              502
    • 15.7.7.3            Market players               503
  • 15.7.8 Hydrogen-Manganese (H-Mn) flow batteries             503
    • 15.7.8.1            Technology description           503
    • 15.7.8.2            SWOT analysis              504
    • 15.7.8.3            Market players               506
  • 15.7.9 Organic flow batteries              506
    • 15.7.9.1            Technology description           506
    • 15.7.9.2            SWOT analysis              508
    • 15.7.9.3            Market players               509
  • 15.7.10              Emerging Flow-Batteries         510
    • 15.7.10.1         Semi-Solid Redox Flow Batteries      510
    • 15.7.10.2         Solar Redox Flow Batteries   510
    • 15.7.10.3         Air-Breathing Sulfur Flow Batteries  510
    • 15.7.10.4         Metal–CO2 Batteries 511
  • 15.7.11              Hybrid Flow Batteries               511
    • 15.7.11.1         Zinc-Cerium Hybrid Flow Batteries  511
      • 15.7.11.1.1     Technology description           511
    • 15.7.11.2         Zinc-Polyiodide Flow Batteries           512
      • 15.7.11.2.1     Technology description           512
    • 15.7.11.3         Zinc-Nickel Hybrid Flow Batteries    514
      • 15.7.11.3.1     Technology description           514
    • 15.7.11.4         Zinc-Bromine Hybrid Flow Batteries               515
      • 15.7.11.4.1     Technology description           515
    • 15.7.11.5         Vanadium-Polyhalide Flow Batteries              516
      • 15.7.11.5.1     Technology description           516
• 15.8     Markets for redox flow batteries         520
• 15.9     Global revenues           523
  • 15.9.1 Regional Market Analysis and Capacity Distribution           526

 

16          ZN-BASED BATTERIES              532

• 16.1     Technology description           532
  • 16.1.1 Zinc-Air batteries         532
  • 16.1.2 Zinc-ion batteries        533
  • 16.1.3 Zinc-bromide 534
• 16.2     Market outlook             534
• 16.3     Product developers    535

 

17          AI BATTERY TECHNOLOGY   536

• 17.1     Overview           536
• 17.2     Applications   536
  • 17.2.1 Machine Learning       537
    • 17.2.1.1            Overview           537
  • 17.2.2 Material Informatics  538
    • 17.2.2.1            Overview           538
    • 17.2.2.2            Companies     540
  • 17.2.3 Cell Testing      542
    • 17.2.3.1            Overview           542
    • 17.2.3.2            Companies     543
  • 17.2.4 Cell Assembly and Manufacturing  545
    • 17.2.4.1            Overview           545
    • 17.2.4.2            Companies     547
  • 17.2.5 Battery Analytics         548
    • 17.2.5.1            Overview           548
    • 17.2.5.2            Companies     550
  • 17.2.6 Second Life Assessment       551
    • 17.2.6.1            Overview           551
    • 17.2.6.2            Companies     552

 

18          PRINTED SUPERCAPACITORS            553

• 18.1     Overview           553
• 18.2     Printing methods         553
• 18.3     Electrode materials   554
• 18.4     Electrolytes     555

 

19          CELL AND BATTERY DESIGN                560

• 19.1     Cell Design      560
  • 19.1.1 Overview           560
    • 19.1.1.1            Larger cell formats     560
    • 19.1.1.2            Bipolar battery architecture 560
    • 19.1.1.3            Thick Format Electrodes         561
    • 19.1.1.4            Dual Electrolyte Li-ion             561
  • 19.1.2 Commercial examples            562
    • 19.1.2.1            Tesla 4680 Tabless Cell           562
    • 19.1.2.2            EnPower multi-layer electrode technology 562
    • 19.1.2.3            Prieto Battery 563
    • 19.1.2.4            Addionics         564
  • 19.1.3 Electrolyte Additives 564
  • 19.1.4 Enhancing battery performance        566
• 19.2     Cell Performance        566
  • 19.2.1 Energy density               566
    • 19.2.1.1            BEV cell energy             567
    • 19.2.1.2            Cell energy density     567
• 19.3     Battery Packs 569
  • 19.3.1 Cell-to-pack    570
  • 19.3.2 Cell-to-chassis/body                572
  • 19.3.3 Bipolar batteries          574
  • 19.3.4 Hybrid battery packs 575
    • 19.3.4.1            CATL    576
    • 19.3.4.2            Our Next Energy           576
    • 19.3.4.3            Nio        577
  • 19.3.5 Battery Management System (BMS)               577
    • 19.3.5.1            Overview           577
    • 19.3.5.2            Advantages     578
    • 19.3.5.3            Innovation        579
    • 19.3.5.4            Fast charging capabilities     580
    • 19.3.5.5            Wireless Battery Management System technology               581

 

20          COMPANY PROFILES                582 (406 company profiles)

 

21          RESEARCH METHODOLOGY              884

• 21.1     Report scope 884
• 21.2     Research methodology           885

 

22          REFERENCES 885

 

List of Tables

• Table 1. Trends in the Li-ion market in 2025.             51
• Table 2. Total Addressable Market for Li-ion Batteries.       51
• Table 3. Li-ion battery pack demand for XEV (GWh) 2019-2036. 52
• Table 4. Regional XEV Battery Demand 2036            53
• Table 5. Li-ion battery market value for XEV (in $B) 2019-2036.   54
• Table 6. Market Value by Chemistry 2036. 56
• Table 7. Regional Market Value Distribution 2036. 57
• Table 8. Semi-solid-state battery market forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.     57
• Table 9. Semi-solid-state battery Application Analysis 2036.       59
• Table 10. Semi-solid-state battery Cost Evolution.               60
• Table 11. Semi-solid-state battery market forecast, GWh,  by electrolyte types 2019-2036.   61
• Table 12. Semi-solid-state battery market value ($B) 2019-2036.              63
• Table 13. Application Value Breakdown 2036.         64
• Table 14. Solid-state battery market forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.               65
• Table 15. Solid-state battery market forecast, GWh, by electrolyte types 2019-2036. 66
• Table 16. Sodium-ion battery market forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.             69
• Table 17. Sodium-ion Technology Distribution 2036.          71
• Table 18. Sodium-ion battery market value ($B) 2019-2036.         71
• Table 19. Sodium-ion Regional Market Value 2036.             72
• Table 20. Li-ion battery demand versus beyond Li-ion batteries demand 2019-2036.  73
• Table 21. Technology Composition of Beyond Li-ion 2036.             74
• Table 22. Market Value Comparison: Li-ion vs Beyond Li-ion 2036            77
• Table 23. BEV car cathode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.     78
• Table 24. BEV anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.  79
• Table 25. BEV anode forecast ($B) 2019-2036.       81
• Table 26. EV cathode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036. 82
• Table 27. EV Anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.     83
• Table 28. Advanced anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.    85
• Table 29. Advanced anode forecast (S$B) 2019-2036.      86
• Table 30. Annual sales of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) 2018-2036.     88
• Table 31. Battery chemistries used in electric buses.         92
• Table 32. Micro EV types         93
• Table 33. Battery Sizes for Different Vehicle Types.               95
• Table 34. Competing technologies for batteries in electric boats.              97
• Table 35. Electric car Li-ion demand forecast (GWh), 2018-2036.             98
• Table 36. Regional Breakdown 2036.             99
• Table 37. Battery Chemistry Distribution 2036.      100
• Table 38. EV Li-ion battery market (US$B), 2018-2036.     100
• Table 39. Electric bus, truck and van battery forecast (GWh), 2018-2036.           102
• Table 40. Regional Distribution 2036.            105
• Table 41. Battery Chemistry Distribution 2036.      106
• Table 42. Micro EV Li-ion demand forecast (GWh).               106
• Table 43. Regional Micro-EVs  Battery Value 2036.               109
• Table 44. Competing technologies for batteries in grid storage.  110
• Table 45. Lithium-ion battery grid storage demand forecast (GWh), 2018-2036.             111
• Table 46. Utility-Scale Grid Storage Project Size Distribution 2036:          113
• Table 47. Utility-Scale Grid Storage Geographic Distribution 2036.          113
• Table 48. Battery Chemistry Mix Utility-Scale 2036.            113
• Table 49. Commercial & Industrial (C&I) Grid Storage Customer Segments 2036.         115
• Table 50. Commercial & Industrial (C&I) Grid Storage Geographic Distribution 2036.  115
• Table 51. Battery Chemistry Mix C&I 2036. 115
• Table 52. Residential Grid Storage Geographic Distribution 2036.             117
• Table 53. Battery Chemistry Mix Residential 2036.              117
• Table 54. Competing technologies for batteries in consumer electronics             119
• Table 55. Competing technologies for sodium-ion batteries in grid storage.       121
• Table 56. Market drivers for use of advanced materials and technologies in batteries. 122
• Table 57. Battery market megatrends.           123
• Table 58. Advanced materials for batteries.               125
• Table 59. Motivation for Battery Development Beyond Lithium    129
• Table 60. Battery Chemistries             132
• Table 61. Commercial Li-ion battery cell composition.     136
• Table 62.  Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery supply chain.            139
• Table 63. Types of lithium battery.    140
• Table 64. Comparison of Li-ion battery anode materials. 141
• Table 65. Trends in the Li-ion battery market.           145
• Table 66. Si-anode performance summary.              149
• Table 67. Manufacturing methods for nano-silicon anodes.          152
• Table 68. Market Players' Production Capacites.   153
• Table 69. Strategic Partnerships and Agreements.                154
• Table 70. Markets and applications for silicon anodes.     157
• Table 71. Anode material consumption by type (tonnes). 161
• Table 72. Anode material consumption by end use market (tonnes).       163
• Table 73. Anode materials prices, current and forecasted (USD/kg).       169
• Table 74. Silicon-anode companies.              176
• Table 75. Li-ion battery cathode materials.                178
• Table 76. Key technology trends shaping lithium-ion battery cathode development.    179
• Table 77. Benefits of High and Ultra-High Nickel NMC.      180
• Table 78. Routes to High Nickel Cathode Stabilisation      182
• Table 79. High-nickel Products Table.            183
• Table 80. Li-Mn-rich / lithium-manganese-rich / LMR-NMC costs.             189
• Table 81. Commercial lithium-manganese-rich cathode development. 189
• Table 82. Lithium-manganese-rich cathode developers    192
• Table 83. Properties of Lithium Cobalt Oxide) as a cathode material for lithium-ion batteries.               193
• Table 84. Properties of lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4 or LFP) as a cathode material for lithium-ion batteries.          194
• Table 85. Properties of Lithium Manganese Oxide cathode material.       195
• Table 86. Properties of Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC).               195
• Table 87. Properties of Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide   196
• Table 88. LMFP Cell Performance.   198
• Table 89. LMFP Energy Density Analysis      199
• Table 90. LMFP Cost Analysis             200
• Table 91. LMFP Cathode Developers.            203
• Table 92. LNMO Performance.           206
• Table 93. LNMO Energy Density Comparison           206
• Table 94. Alternative Cathode Production Routes.               211
• Table 95. Alternative cathode synthesis routes.     211
• Table 96. Alternative Cathode Production Companies.     212
• Table 97. Recycled cathode materials facilities and capactites. 214
• Table 98. Comparison table of key lithium-ion cathode materials              215
• Table 99. Li-ion battery Binder and conductive additive materials.            216
• Table 100. Li-ion battery Separator materials.         217
• Table 101. Lithium-Ion Cell Energy Density Evolution 2000-2036               218
• Table 102. Anode Technology Comparison for High-Energy Cells               221
• Table 103. Energy Density Technology Roadmap 2025-2036        222
• Table 104. Market Penetration Forecast - High Energy Density Cells (>350 Wh/kg)         224
• Table 105. PFAS Regulations Impacting Battery Manufacturing 2025-2036         225
• Table 106. PFAS Compounds in Lithium-Ion Battery Production 227
• Table 107. Non-PFAS Cathode Binder Performance Comparison              233
• Table 108. PFAS Electrolyte Additives and Functions          234
• Table 109. Economic Impact of PFAS Elimination by Cell Component ($/kWh) 237
• Table 110. Revenue Impact  240
• Table 111. Li-ion battery market players.     241
• Table 112. Typical lithium-ion battery recycling process flow.       242
• Table 113. Main feedstock streams that can be recycled for lithium-ion batteries.         243
• Table 114. Comparison of LIB recycling methods. 243
• Table 115. Comparison of conventional and emerging processes for recycling beyond lithium-ion batteries.          257
• Table 116. Global revenues for Li-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD). 258
• Table 117. Anode-less lithium-metal cell benefits.               285
• Table 118. Anode-less lithium-metal cell developers.        287
• Table 119. Hybrid Battery Technologies        289
• Table 120. Applications for Li-metal batteries.         290
• Table 121. Li-metal battery developers         292
• Table 122. Li-S performance characteristics.           294
• Table 123. Comparison of the theoretical energy densities of lithium-sulfur batteries versus other common battery types.           296
• Table 124. Challenges with lithium-sulfur. 297
• Table 125. Li-S advantages and use cases 301
• Table 126. Global revenues for Lithium-sulfur, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).   308
• Table 127. Lithium-sulphur battery product developers.  312
• Table 128. Global revenues for Lithium titanate and niobate batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).  315
• Table 129. Product developers in Lithium titanate and niobate batteries.             320
• Table 130. Comparison of cathode materials.         322
• Table 131.  Layered transition metal oxide cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries.             323
• Table 132. General cycling performance characteristics of common layered transition metal oxide cathode materials.     323
• Table 133. Polyanionic materials for sodium-ion battery cathodes.          324
• Table 134. Comparative analysis of different polyanionic materials.        325
• Table 135.  Common types of Prussian Blue Analogue materials used as cathodes or anodes in sodium-ion batteries.  327
• Table 136. Comparison of Na-ion battery anode materials.            329
• Table 137. Hard Carbon producers for sodium-ion battery anodes.         330
• Table 138. Comparison of carbon materials in sodium-ion battery anodes.       330
• Table 139. Comparison between Natural and Synthetic Graphite.             332
• Table 140. Properties of graphene, properties of competing materials, applications thereof.  336
• Table 141. Comparison of carbon based anodes. 337
• Table 142.  Alloying materials used in sodium-ion batteries.          337
• Table 143. Na-ion electrolyte formulations.              338
• Table 144. Pros and cons compared to other battery types.           339
• Table 145. Cost comparison with Li-ion batteries. 340
• Table 146. Key materials in sodium-ion battery cells.         340
• Table 147. Global revenues for sodium-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).   343
• Table 148. Global revenues for aluminium-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).            359
• Table 149. Product developers in aluminium-ion batteries.            366
• Table 150. Types of solid-state electrolytes.              370
• Table 151. Market segmentation and status for solid-state batteries.      370
• Table 152. Solid Electrolyte Material Comparison.               371
• Table 153.  Typical process chains for manufacturing key components and assembly of solid-state batteries.          372
• Table 154. Comparison between liquid and solid-state batteries.              376
• Table 155. Solid-State Battery Technology Readiness Level (TRL) by Company 2025    377
• Table 156. Automotive OEM Solid-State Battery Programs 2025-2036   382
• Table 157. Limitations of solid-state thin film batteries.    390
• Table 158. Solid-State Battery Market Forecast by Electrolyte Type 2025-2036 391
• Table 159. Solid-state thin-film battery market players.    396
• Table 160. Key Material Properties for Structural Battery Composites     399
• Table 161. Electric Vehicle Impact Analysis - Structural Battery Composites     400
• Table 162. Structural Battery Composites Market Forecast 2025-2036 404
• Table 163. Life Cycle Environmental Impact Comparison (per kg of material)    407
• Table 164. Flexible battery applications and technical requirements.     409
• Table 165. Comparison of Flexible and Traditional Lithium-Ion Batteries               411
• Table 166. Material Choices for Flexible Battery Components.    411
• Table 167. Flexible Li-ion battery prototypes.           418
• Table 168. Thin film vs bulk solid-state batteries.   420
• Table 169. Summary of fiber-shaped lithium-ion batteries.            422
• Table 170. Types of fiber-shaped batteries.                433
• Table 171. Global revenues for flexible batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).             438
• Table 172. Product developers in flexible batteries.             440
• Table 173. Components of transparent batteries. 444
• Table 174. Components of degradable batteries.  448
• Table 175. Product developers in degradable batteries.    450
• Table 176. Main components and properties of different printed battery types.               452
• Table 177. Applications of printed batteries and their physical and electrochemical requirements.  456
• Table 178. 2D and 3D printing techniques. 457
• Table 179. Printing techniques applied to printed batteries.           458
• Table 180. Main components and corresponding electrochemical values of lithium-ion printed batteries.          458
• Table 181. Printing technique, main components and corresponding electrochemical values of printed batteries based on Zn–MnO2 and other battery types.       460
• Table 182. Main 3D Printing techniques for battery manufacturing.         463
• Table 183. Electrode Materials for 3D Printed Batteries.   464
• Table 184. Global revenues for printed batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).             466
• Table 185. Product developers in printed batteries.             467
• Table 186. Advantages and disadvantages of redox flow batteries.            472
• Table 187. Global Redox Flow Battery Market Forecast 2025-2036           473
• Table 188. Comprehensive RFB Chemistry Benchmarking             474
• Table 189. RFB Component Cost Evolution 2025-2036     478
• Table 190. Comparison of different battery types. 481
• Table 191. Summary of main flow battery types.    482
• Table 192. Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB)-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          484
• Table 193. Market players in Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB).        486
• Table 194. Zinc-bromine (ZnBr) flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          488
• Table 195. Market players in Zinc-Bromine Flow Batteries (ZnBr).              490
• Table 196. Polysulfide bromine flow batteries (PSB)-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          491
• Table 197. Iron-chromium (ICB) flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          493
• Table 198. Market players in Iron-chromium (ICB) flow batteries.               494
• Table 199. All-Iron flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.  496
• Table 200. Market players in All-iron Flow Batteries.            497
• Table 201. Zinc-iron (Zn-Fe) flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          498
• Table 202. Market players in Zinc-iron (Zn-Fe) Flow Batteries.       500
• Table 203. Hydrogen-bromine (H-Br) flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          501
• Table 204. Market players in Hydrogen-bromine (H-Br) flow batteries.    503
• Table 205. Hydrogen-Manganese (H-Mn) flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.         504
• Table 206. Market players in Hydrogen-Manganese (H-Mn) Flow Batteries.         506
• Table 207. Materials in Organic Redox Flow Batteries (ORFB).     506
• Table 208. Key Active species for ORFBs     507
• Table 209. Organic flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.  507
• Table 210. Market players in Organic Redox Flow Batteries (ORFB).         509
• Table 211. Zinc-Cerium Hybrid flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          512
• Table 212. Zinc-Polyiodide Hybrid Flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          513
• Table 213. Zinc-Nickel Hybrid Flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          514
• Table 214. Zinc-Bromine Hybrid Flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.          515
• Table 215. Vanadium-Polyhalide Hybrid Flow batteries-key features, advantages, limitations, performance, components and applications.         516
• Table 216. Redox flow battery value chain. 521
• Table 217. Global revenues for redox flow batteries, 2018-2036, by type (millions USD).           523
• Table 218. RFB Regional Market Forecast 2025-2036         526
• Table 219. ZN-based battery product developers. 535
• Table 220. Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in battery technology.             536
• Table 221. Machine learning approaches.  537
• Table 222. Types of Neural Networks.            538
• Table 223. Companies in materials informatics for batteries.        541
• Table 224. Data Forms for Cell Modelling.  542
• Table 225. Algorithmic Approaches for Different Testing Modes. 543
• Table 226. Companies in AI for cell testing for batteries.   544
• Table 227.Algorithmic Approaches in Manufacturing and Cell Assembly:            545
• Table 228. AI-based battery manufacturing players.            548
• Table 229. Companies in AI for battery diagnostics and management.  551
• Table 230. Algorithmic Approaches and Data Inputs/Outputs.    552
• Table 231. Companies in AI for second-life battery assessment 552
• Table 232. Methods for printing supercapacitors. 553
• Table 233. Electrode Materials for printed supercapacitors.          554
• Table 234. Electrolytes for printed supercapacitors.           556
• Table 235. Main properties and components of printed supercapacitors.            556
• Table 236. Electrolyte Additives.       565
• Table 237. Cell performance specification.               567
• Table 238. Commercial cell chemistries      568
• Table 239. Drivers and Challenges for Cell-to-pack.            571
• Table 240. Cell-to-pack and cell-to-body designs.               573
• Table 241. 3DOM separator. 586
• Table 242. CATL sodium-ion battery characteristics.          638
• Table 243. CHAM sodium-ion battery characteristics.       643
• Table 244. Chasm SWCNT products.             644
• Table 245. Faradion sodium-ion battery characteristics.  681
• Table 246. HiNa Battery sodium-ion battery characteristics.         715
• Table 247. Battery performance test specifications of J. Flex batteries.  737
• Table 248. LiNa Energy battery characteristics.      755
• Table 249. Natrium Energy battery characteristics.              777
•  

List of Figures

• Figure 1. Li-ion battery pack demand for XEV (in GWh) 2019-2036.          53
• Figure 2. Li-ion battery market value for XEV (in $B) 2019-2036. 55
• Figure 3. Semi-solid-state battery market forecast, GWh,  by electrolyte types 2019-2036.    62
• Figure 4. Semi-solid-state battery market value ($B) 2019-2036.               64
• Figure 5. Solid-state battery market forecast (GWh) 2019-2036. 66
• Figure 6. Solid-state battery market forecast, GWh, by electrolyte types 2019-2036.  68
• Figure 7. Sodium-ion  battery market forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.             70
• Figure 8. Sodium-ion battery market value ($B) 2019-2036.          72
• Figure 9. BEV car cathode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.      79
• Figure 10. BEV anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036. 80
• Figure 11. BEV anode forecast ($B) 2019-2036.     82
• Figure 12. EV cathode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.               83
• Figure 13. EV Anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.   84
• Figure 14. Advanced anode forecast (GWh) 2019-2036.  86
• Figure 15. Advanced anode forecast (S$B) 2019-2036.     87
• Figure 16. Salt-E Dog mobile battery.             120
• Figure 17. I.Power Nest - Residential Energy Storage System Solution.   121
• Figure 18. Lithium Cell Design.          137
• Figure 19. Functioning of a lithium-ion battery.       137
• Figure 20. Li-ion battery cell pack.   138
• Figure 21. Li-ion electric vehicle (EV) battery.           141
• Figure 22. SWOT analysis: Li-ion batteries. 145
• Figure 23. Li-ion technology roadmap.         146
• Figure 24. Silicon anode value chain.            148
• Figure 25. Market development timeline.    154
• Figure 26. Silicon Anode Commercialization Timeline.      155
• Figure 27. Silicon anode value chain.            156
• Figure 28. Anode material consumption by type (tonnes).              163
• Figure 29. Anode material consumption by end user market (tonnes).   167
• Figure 30. Ultra-high Nickel Cathode Commercialization Timeline.          184
• Figure 31. Lithium-manganese-rich cathode SWOT analysis.       188
• Figure 32. Li-cobalt structure.             193
• Figure 33.  Li-manganese structure.               195
• Figure 34. LNMO cathode SWOT.      209
• Figure 35. Typical direct, pyrometallurgical, and hydrometallurgical recycling methods for recovery of Li-ion battery active materials. 242
• Figure 36. Flow chart of recycling processes of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs).       245
• Figure 37. Hydrometallurgical recycling flow sheet.             246
• Figure 38. SWOT analysis for Hydrometallurgy Li-ion Battery Recycling.                247
• Figure 39. Umicore recycling flow diagram.              248
• Figure 40. SWOT analysis for Pyrometallurgy Li-ion Battery Recycling.   249
• Figure 41. Schematic of direct recycling process. 251
• Figure 42. SWOT analysis for Direct Li-ion Battery Recycling.        254
• Figure 43. Global revenues for Li-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).  259
• Figure 44. Schematic diagram of a Li-metal battery.            281
• Figure 45. SWOT analysis: Lithium-metal batteries.             292
• Figure 46. Schematic diagram of Lithium–sulfur battery.  294
• Figure 47. Lithium-sulfur market value chain.          306
• Figure 48. SWOT analysis: Lithium-sulfur batteries.             308
• Figure 49. Global revenues for Lithium-sulfur, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).    309
• Figure 50. Global revenues for Lithium titanate and niobate batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).  316
• Figure 51. Schematic of Prussian blue analogues (PBA).  327
• Figure 52. Comparison of SEM micrographs of sphere-shaped natural graphite (NG; after several processing steps) and synthetic graphite (SG).       332
• Figure 53. Overview of graphite production, processing and applications.          334
• Figure 54. Schematic diagram of a multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT).   335
• Figure 55. Schematic diagram of a Na-ion battery.               342
• Figure 56. SWOT analysis: Sodium-ion batteries.  343
• Figure 57. Global revenues for sodium-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).    344
• Figure 58.  Schematic of a Na–S battery.      353
• Figure 59. SWOT analysis: Sodium-sulfur batteries.            355
• Figure 60. Saturnose battery chemistry.      357
• Figure 61. SWOT analysis: Aluminium-ion batteries.           358
• Figure 62. Global revenues for aluminium-ion batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).             360
• Figure 63. Schematic illustration of all-solid-state lithium battery.            369
• Figure 64. ULTRALIFE thin film battery.          370
• Figure 65. Examples of applications of thin film batteries.               373
• Figure 66. Capacities and voltage windows of various cathode and anode materials. 374
• Figure 67. Traditional lithium-ion battery (left), solid state battery (right).             376
• Figure 68. Bulk type compared to thin film type SSB.          388
• Figure 69. SWOT analysis: All-solid state batteries.              390
• Figure 70. Ragone plots of diverse batteries and the commonly used electronics powered by flexible batteries.          409
• Figure 71. Various architectures for flexible and stretchable electrochemical energy storage.              412
• Figure 72. Types of flexible batteries.             414
• Figure 73. Flexible batteries on the market.               414
• Figure 74. Materials and design structures in flexible lithium ion batteries.         418
• Figure 75. Flexible/stretchable LIBs with different structures.       420
• Figure 76. a–c) Schematic illustration of coaxial (a), twisted (b), and stretchable (c) LIBs.        423
• Figure 77. a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication of the superstretchy LIB based on an MWCNT/LMO composite fiber and an MWCNT/LTO composite fiber. b,c) Photograph (b) and the schematic illustration (c) of a stretchable fiber-shaped battery under stretching conditions. d) Schematic illustration of the spring-like stretchable LIB. e) SEM images of a fiberat different strains. f) Evolution of specific capacitance with strain. d–f)                424
• Figure 78. Origami disposable battery.          425
• Figure 79. Zn–MnO2 batteries produced by Brightvolt.       427
• Figure 80. Charge storage mechanism of alkaline Zn-based batteries and zinc-ion batteries. 429
• Figure 81. Zn–MnO2 batteries produced by Blue Spark.    430
• Figure 82. Ag–Zn batteries produced by Imprint Energy.    431
• Figure 83.  Wearable self-powered devices.              436
• Figure 84. SWOT analysis: Flexible  batteries.          438
• Figure 85. Global revenues for flexible batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).              440
• Figure 86. Transparent batteries.       443
• Figure 87. SWOT analysis: Transparent batteries.  446
• Figure 88. Degradable batteries.       447
• Figure 89. SWOT analysis: Degradable batteries.   450
• Figure 90. Various applications of printed paper batteries.             451
• Figure 91.Schematic representation of the main components of a battery.         452
• Figure 92. Schematic of a printed battery in a sandwich cell architecture, where the anode and cathode of the battery are stacked together. 454
• Figure 93. Manufacturing Processes for Conventional Batteries (I), 3D Microbatteries (II), and 3D-Printed Batteries (III). 462
• Figure 94. SWOT analysis: Printed batteries.             466
• Figure 95. Global revenues for printed batteries, 2018-2036, by market (Billions USD).              467
• Figure 96. Scheme of a redox flow battery. 472
• Figure 97. Vanadium Redox Flow Battery schematic.          483
• Figure 98. SWOT analysis: Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB)              485
• Figure 99. Schematic of zinc bromine flow battery energy storage system.         487
• Figure 100. SWOT analysis: Zinc-Bromine Flow Batteries (ZnBr).                489
• Figure 101. SWOT analysis: Iron-chromium (ICB) flow batteries. 492
• Figure 102. SWOT analysis: Iron-chromium (ICB) flow batteries. 494
• Figure 103.  Schematic of All-Iron Redox Flow Batteries.  495
• Figure 104. SWOT analysis: All-iron Flow Batteries.              497
• Figure 105. SWOT analysis: Zinc-iron (Zn-Fe) flow batteries.          500
• Figure 106. Schematic of Hydrogen-bromine flow battery.              501
• Figure 107. SWOT analysis: Hydrogen-bromine (H-Br) flow batteries.      503
• Figure 108. SWOT analysis: Hydrogen-Manganese (H-Mn) flow batteries.            505
• Figure 109. SWOT analysis: Organic redox flow batteries (ORFBs) batteries.      509
• Figure 110. Schematic of zinc-polyiodide redox flow battery (ZIB).            513
• Figure 111. Redox flow batteries applications roadmap.  523
• Figure 112. Global revenues for redox flow batteries, 2018-2036, by type (millions USD).         531
• Figure 113. Main printing methods for supercapacitors.  553
• Figure 114. Types of integrated battery packs          570
• Figure 115. Battery pack with a cell-to-pack design and prismatic cells.               571
• Figure 116. 24M battery.         584
• Figure 117. 3DOM battery.     586
• Figure 118. AC biode prototype.        588
• Figure 119. Schematic diagram of liquid metal battery operation.             600
• Figure 120. Ampcera’s all-ceramic dense solid-state electrolyte separator sheets (25 um thickness, 50mm x 100mm size, flexible and defect free, room temperature ionic conductivity ~1 mA/cm).         602
• Figure 121. Amprius battery products.          603
• Figure 122. All-polymer battery schematic.               607
• Figure 123. All Polymer Battery Module.      607
• Figure 124. Resin current collector. 607
• Figure 125. Ateios thin-film, printed battery.             609
• Figure 126. The structure of aluminum-sulfur battery from Avanti Battery.           612
• Figure 127. Containerized NAS® batteries. 615
• Figure 128. 3D printed lithium-ion battery. 623
• Figure 129. Blue Solution module.   625
• Figure 130. TempTraq wearable patch.          626
• Figure 131. Schematic of a fluidized bed reactor which is able to scale up the generation of SWNTs using the CoMoCAT process.              645
• Figure 132. Carhartt X-1 Smart Heated Vest.            650
• Figure 133. Cymbet EnerChip™          654
• Figure 134. E-magy nano sponge structure.              664
• Figure 135. Enerpoly zinc-ion battery.            666
• Figure 136. SoftBattery®.        667
• Figure 137. ASSB All-Solid-State Battery by EGI 300 Wh/kg.           670
• Figure 138. Roll-to-roll equipment working with ultrathin steel substrate.            672
• Figure 139. 40 Ah battery cell.             680
• Figure 140. FDK Corp battery.             683
• Figure 141. 2D paper batteries.          691
• Figure 142. 3D Custom Format paper batteries.     691
• Figure 143. Fuji carbon nanotube products.             692
• Figure 144. Gelion Endure battery.   695
• Figure 145. Gelion GEN3 lithium sulfur batteries.  696
• Figure 146. Grepow flexible battery.                707
• Figure 147. HPB solid-state battery.                714
• Figure 148. HiNa Battery pack for EV.            715
• Figure 149. JAC demo EV powered by a HiNa Na-ion battery.        716
• Figure 150. Nanofiber Nonwoven Fabrics from Hirose.      717
• Figure 151. Hitachi Zosen solid-state battery.          719
• Figure 152. Ilika solid-state batteries.            724
• Figure 153. TAeTTOOz printable battery materials.               727
• Figure 154. Ionic Materials battery cell.        732
• Figure 155. Schematic of Ion Storage Systems solid-state battery structure.     734
• Figure 156. ITEN micro batteries.      736
• Figure 157. Kite Rise’s A-sample sodium-ion battery module.      743
• Figure 158. LiBEST flexible battery.  749
• Figure 159. Li-FUN sodium-ion battery cells.            752
• Figure 160. LiNa Energy battery.        754
• Figure 161. 3D solid-state thin-film battery technology.    757
• Figure 162. Lyten batteries.   761
• Figure 163. Cellulomix production process.              763
• Figure 164. Nanobase versus conventional products.        764
• Figure 165. Nanotech Energy battery.            775
• Figure 166. Hybrid battery powered electrical motorbike concept.           778
• Figure 167. NBD battery.         779
• Figure 168. Schematic illustration of three-chamber system for SWCNH production. 780
• Figure 169. TEM images of carbon nanobrush.       781
• Figure 170. EnerCerachip.     785
• Figure 171. Cambrian battery.            799
• Figure 172. Printed battery.   803
• Figure 173. Prieto Foam-Based 3D Battery.               804
• Figure 174. Printed Energy flexible battery. 806
• Figure 175. ProLogium solid-state battery. 809
• Figure 176. QingTao solid-state batteries.   810
• Figure 177. Schematic of the quinone flow battery.              812
• Figure 178. Sakuú Corporation 3Ah Lithium Metal Solid-state Battery.   819
• Figure 179. Salgenx S3000 seawater flow battery. 820
• Figure 180. Samsung SDI's sixth-generation prismatic batteries.                822
• Figure 181. SES Apollo batteries.      828
• Figure 182. Sionic Energy battery cell.           836
• Figure 183. Solid Power battery pouch cell.               839
• Figure 184. Stora Enso lignin battery materials.      842
• Figure 185.TeraWatt Technology solid-state battery             853
• Figure 186. Zeta Energy 20 Ah cell.  882
• Figure 187. Zoolnasm batteries.        883
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