The Global Market for Renewable Materials

Published January 2023 | 1,775 pages, 473 figures, 323 tables | Download table of contents

Bio-based, CO2-based and recycled materials are the only viable alternatives to fossil-based chemicals and materials. Demand for chemicals and materials based on renewable sources is growing fast, driven by corporate commitments to sustainability, government regulation & policies and consumer preferences.

The Global Market for Renewable Materials covers sectors, products, emerging technologies, and companies in bio- and CO₂-based chemicals and materials, and advanced chemical recycling, with 1,775 pages of content. The report provides a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in renewable alternatives to fossil based carbon, with profiles of over 1,140 companies developing sustainable raw materials and technologies.

Report contents include:

Bio-materials

In depth market analysis of bio-based chemical feedstocks, biopolymers, bioplastics, natural fibers and lignin, biofuels and bio-based coatings and paints.
Global production capacities, market volumes and trends, current and forecast to 2033.
Analysis of bio-based chemical including 11-Aminoundecanoic acid (11-AA), 1,4-Butanediol (1,4-BDO), Dodecanedioic acid (DDDA), Epichlorohydrin (ECH), Ethylene, Furan derivatives, 5-Chloromethylfurfural (5-CMF), 2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid (2,5-FDCA), Furandicarboxylic methyl ester (FDME), Isosorbide, Itaconic acid, 5 Hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF), Lactic acid (D-LA), Lactic acid – L-lactic acid (L-LA), Lactide, Levoglucosenone, Levulinic acid, Monoethylene glycol (MEG), Monopropylene glycol (MPG), Muconic acid, Naphtha, 1,5-Pentametylenediamine (DN5), 1,3-Propanediol (1,3-PDO), Sebacic acid and Succinic acid.
Analysis of synthetic bio-polymers and bio-plastics market including Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA), Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET), Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT), Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF), Polyamides (Bio-PA), Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT), Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and copolymers, Polyethylene (Bio-PE), Polypropylene (Bio-PP)
Analysis of naturally produced bio-based polymers including Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), Polysaccharides, Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC), Cellulose nanocrystals, Cellulose nanofibers, Protein-based bioplastics, Algal and fungal materials.
Analysis of market for bio-fuels.
Analysis of types of natural fibers including plant fibers, animal fibers including alternative leather, wool, silk fiber and down and polysaccharides.
Markets for natural fibers, including composites, aerospace, automotive, construction & building, sports & leisure, textiles, consumer products and packaging.
Production capacities of lignin producers.
In depth analysis of biorefinery lignin production.
Analysis of the market for bio-based, sustainable paints and coatings.
Analysis of types of bio-coatings and paints market. Including Alkyd coatings, Polyurethane coatings, Epoxy coatings, Acrylate resins, Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA), Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), Cellulose, Rosins, Biobased carbon black, Lignin, Edible coatings, Protein-based biomaterials for coatings, Alginate etc.

Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage

Analysis of the global market for carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies.
Market developments, funding and investment in carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) 2020-2023.
Analysis of key market dynamics, trends, opportunities and factors influencing the global carbon, capture utilization & storage technologies market and its subsegments.
Market barriers to carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies.
National policies.
Prices to January 2023.
Latest CCS projects updates.
Latest developments in carbon capture, storage and utilization technologies
Market analysis of CO2-derived products including fuels, chemicals, building materials from minerals, building materials from waste, enhanced oil recovery, and CO2 use to enhance the yields of biological processes.

Advanced Chemical Recycling

Overview of the global plastics and bioplastics markets.
Market drivers and trends.
Advanced chemical recycling industry developments 2020-2023.
Capacities by technology.
Market maps and value chain.
In-depth analysis of advanced chemical recycling technologies.
Advanced recycling technologies covered include:
- Pyrolysis
- Gasification
- Dissolution
- Depolymerisation
- Emerging technologies.

Profiles of over 1,140 companies. Companies profiled include NatureWorks, Total Corbion, Danimer Scientific, Novamont, Mitsubishi Chemicals, Indorama, Braskem, Avantium, Borealis, Cathay, Dupont, BASF, Arkema, DuPont, BASF, AMSilk GmbH, Loliware, Bolt Threads, Ecovative, Bioform Technologies, Algal Bio, Kraig Biocraft Laboratories, Biotic Circular Technologies Ltd., Full Cycle Bioplastics, Stora Enso Oyj, Spiber, Traceless Materials GmbH, CJ Biomaterials, Natrify, Plastus, Humble Bee Bio, B’ZEOS, Ecovative, Notpla, Smartfiber, Keel Labs, MycoWorks, Algiecel, Aspiring Materials, Cambridge Carbon Capture, Carbon Engineering Ltd., Captura, Carbyon BV, CarbonCure Technologies Inc., CarbonOrO, Carbon Collect, Climeworks, Dimensional Energy, Dioxycle, Ebb Carbon, enaDyne, Fortera Corporation, Global Thermostat, Heirloom Carbon Technologies, High Hopes Labs, LanzaTech, Liquid Wind AB, Lithos, Living Carbon, Mars Materials, Mercurius Biorefining, Mission Zero Technologies, OXCUU, Oxylum, Paebbl, Prometheus Fuels, RepAir, Sunfire GmbH, Sustaera, Svante, Travertine Technologies, Verdox, Agilyx, APK AG, Aquafil, Carbios, Eastman, Extracthive, Fych Technologies, Garbo, gr3n SA, Ioniqa, Itero, Licella, Mura Technology, revalyu Resources GmbH, Plastic Energy, Polystyvert, Pyrowave, ReVital Polymers and SABIC.

1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 79

2 BIO-BASED CHEMICALS AND FEEDSTOCKS MARKET 81

2.1 Types 81
2.2 Production capacities 82
2.3 Bio-based adipic acid 83
- 2.3.1 Applications and production 83
2.4 11-Aminoundecanoic acid (11-AA) 84
- 2.4.1 Applications and production 84
2.5 1,4-Butanediol (1,4-BDO) 85
- 2.5.1 Applications and production 85
2.6 Dodecanedioic acid (DDDA) 86
- 2.6.1 Applications and production 87
2.7 Epichlorohydrin (ECH) 88
- 2.7.1 Applications and production 88
2.8 Ethylene 89
- 2.8.1 Applications and production 89
2.9 Furfural 90
- 2.9.1 Applications and production 90
2.10 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) 91
- 2.10.1 Applications and production 91
2.11 5-Chloromethylfurfural (5-CMF) 91
- 2.11.1 Applications and production 91
2.12 2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid (2,5-FDCA) 92
- 2.12.1 Applications and production 92
2.13 Furandicarboxylic methyl ester (FDME) 92
2.14 Isosorbide 93
- 2.14.1 Applications and production 93
2.15 Itaconic acid 93
- 2.15.1 Applications and production 93
2.16 3-Hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) 94
- 2.16.1 Applications and production 94
2.17 5 Hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) 95
- 2.17.1 Applications and production 95
2.18 Lactic acid (D-LA) 96
- 2.18.1 Applications and production 96
2.19 Lactic acid – L-lactic acid (L-LA) 96
- 2.19.1 Applications and production 97
2.20 Lactide 98
- 2.20.1 Applications and production 98
2.21 Levoglucosenone 99
- 2.21.1 Applications and production 100
2.22 Levulinic acid 100
- 2.22.1 Applications and production 100
2.23 Monoethylene glycol (MEG) 100
- 2.23.1 Applications and production 101
2.24 Monopropylene glycol (MPG) 102
- 2.24.1 Applications and production 102
2.25 Muconic acid 103
- 2.25.1 Applications and production 103
2.26 Bio-Naphtha 103
- 2.26.1 Applications and production 104
- 2.26.2 Production capacities 105
- 2.26.3 Bio-naptha producers 105
2.27 Pentamethylene diisocyanate 107
- 2.27.1 Applications and production 107
2.28 1,3-Propanediol (1,3-PDO) 107
- 2.28.1 Applications and production 107
2.29 Sebacic acid 108
- 2.29.1 Applications and production 109
2.30 Succinic acid (SA) 109
- 2.30.1 Applications and production 110

3 BIO-BASED MATERIALS, PLASTICS AND POLYMERS MARKET 112

3.1 Bio-based or renewable plastics 112
- 3.1.1 Drop-in bio-based plastics 112
- 3.1.2 Novel bio-based plastics 113
3.2 Biodegradable and compostable plastics 114
- 3.2.1 Biodegradability 114
- 3.2.2 Compostability 116
3.3 Advantages and disadvantages 116
3.4 Types of Bio-based and/or Biodegradable Plastics 117
3.5 Market leaders by biobased and/or biodegradable plastic types 118
3.6 Regional/country production capacities, by main types 119
- 3.6.1 Bio-based Polyethylene (Bio-PE) production capacities, by country 121
- 3.6.2 Bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) production capacities, by country 122
- 3.6.3 Bio-based polyamides (Bio-PA) production capacities, by country 123
- 3.6.4 Bio-based Polypropylene (Bio-PP) production capacities, by country 124
- 3.6.5 Bio-based Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT) production capacities, by country 125
- 3.6.6 Bio-based Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) production capacities, by country 126
- 3.6.7 Bio-based Polybutylene succinate (PBS) production capacities, by country 127
- 3.6.8 Bio-based Polylactic acid (PLA) production capacities, by country 128
- 3.6.9 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) production capacities, by country 129
- 3.6.10 Starch blends production capacities, by country 130
3.7 SYNTHETIC BIO-BASED POLYMERS 131
- 3.7.1 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 131
  - 3.7.1.1 Market analysis 131
  - 3.7.1.2 Production 133
  - 3.7.1.3 Producers and production capacities, current and planned 133
    - 3.7.1.3.1 Lactic acid producers and production capacities 133
    - 3.7.1.3.2 PLA producers and production capacities 134
    - 3.7.1.3.3 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons) 135
- 3.7.2 Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) 136
  - 3.7.2.1 Market analysis 136
  - 3.7.2.2 Producers and production capacities 137
  - 3.7.2.3 Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons) 138
- 3.7.3 Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT) 139
  - 3.7.3.1 Market analysis 139
  - 3.7.3.2 Producers and production capacities 139
  - 3.7.3.3 Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons) 140
- 3.7.4 Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF) 141
  - 3.7.4.1 Market analysis 141
  - 3.7.4.2 Comparative properties to PET 142
  - 3.7.4.3 Producers and production capacities 143
    - 3.7.4.3.1 FDCA and PEF producers and production capacities 143
    - 3.7.4.3.2 Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 144
- 3.7.5 Polyamides (Bio-PA) 145
  - 3.7.5.1 Market analysis 145
  - 3.7.5.2 Producers and production capacities 146
  - 3.7.5.3 Polyamides (Bio-PA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons) 147
- 3.7.6 Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT) 147
  - 3.7.6.1 Market analysis 147
  - 3.7.6.2 Producers and production capacities 148
  - 3.7.6.3 Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons) 149
- 3.7.7 Polybutylene succinate (PBS) and copolymers 150
  - 3.7.7.1 Market analysis 150
  - 3.7.7.2 Producers and production capacities 151
  - 3.7.7.3 Polybutylene succinate (PBS) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons) 152
- 3.7.8 Polyethylene (Bio-PE) 152
  - 3.7.8.1 Market analysis 152
  - 3.7.8.2 Producers and production capacities 153
  - 3.7.8.3 Polyethylene (Bio-PE) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 154
- 3.7.9 Polypropylene (Bio-PP) 155
  - 3.7.9.1 Market analysis 155
  - 3.7.9.2 Producers and production capacities 155
  - 3.7.9.3 Polypropylene (Bio-PP) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons) 156
3.8 NATURAL BIO-BASED POLYMERS 157
- 3.8.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 157
  - 3.8.1.1 Technology description 157
  - 3.8.1.2 Types 159
    - 3.8.1.2.1 PHB 161
    - 3.8.1.2.2 PHBV 162
  - 3.8.1.3 Synthesis and production processes 163
  - 3.8.1.4 Market analysis 166
  - 3.8.1.5 Commercially available PHAs 167
  - 3.8.1.6 Markets for PHAs 168
    - 3.8.1.6.1 Packaging 170
    - 3.8.1.6.2 Cosmetics 171
      - 3.8.1.6.2.1 PHA microspheres 171
    - 3.8.1.6.3 Medical 172
      - 3.8.1.6.3.1 Tissue engineering 172
      - 3.8.1.6.3.2 Drug delivery 172
    - 3.8.1.6.4 Agriculture 172
      - 3.8.1.6.4.1 Mulch film 172
      - 3.8.1.6.4.2 Grow bags 172
  - 3.8.1.7 Producers and production capacities 173
  - 3.8.1.8 PHA production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons) 175
- 3.8.2 Polysaccharides 176
  - 3.8.2.1 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 176
    - 3.8.2.1.1 Market analysis 176
    - 3.8.2.1.2 Producers and production capacities 177
  - 3.8.2.2 Nanocellulose 177
    - 3.8.2.2.1 Cellulose nanocrystals 177
      - 3.8.2.2.1.1 Synthesis 178
      - 3.8.2.2.1.2 Properties 180
      - 3.8.2.2.1.3 Production 181
      - 3.8.2.2.1.4 Applications 181
      - 3.8.2.2.1.5 Market analysis 183
      - 3.8.2.2.1.6 Producers and production capacities 184
    - 3.8.2.2.2 Cellulose nanofibers 185
      - 3.8.2.2.2.1 Applications 185
      - 3.8.2.2.2.2 Market analysis 186
      - 3.8.2.2.2.3 Producers and production capacities 188
    - 3.8.2.2.3 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC) 189
      - 3.8.2.2.3.1 Production 189
      - 3.8.2.2.3.2 Applications 192
- 3.8.3 Protein-based bioplastics 193
  - 3.8.3.1 Types, applications and producers 194
- 3.8.4 Algal and fungal 195
  - 3.8.4.1 Algal 195
    - 3.8.4.1.1 Advantages 195
    - 3.8.4.1.2 Production 197
    - 3.8.4.1.3 Producers 197
  - 3.8.4.2 Mycelium 198
    - 3.8.4.2.1 Properties 198
    - 3.8.4.2.2 Applications 199
    - 3.8.4.2.3 Commercialization 200
- 3.8.5 Chitosan 201
  - 3.8.5.1 Technology description 201
3.9 PRODUCTION OF BIOBASED AND BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS, BY REGION 202
- 3.9.1 North America 203
- 3.9.2 Europe 204
- 3.9.3 Asia-Pacific 204
  - 3.9.3.1 China 204
  - 3.9.3.2 Japan 205
  - 3.9.3.3 Thailand 205
  - 3.9.3.4 Indonesia 205
- 3.9.4 Latin America 206
3.10 MARKET SEGMENTATION OF BIOPLASTICS 207
- 3.10.1 Packaging 208
  - 3.10.1.1 Processes for bioplastics in packaging 208
  - 3.10.1.2 Applications 209
  - 3.10.1.3 Flexible packaging 210
    - 3.10.1.3.1 Production volumes 2019-2033 212
  - 3.10.1.4 Rigid packaging 212
  - 3.10.1.4.1 Production volumes 2019-2033 214
- 3.10.2 Consumer products 215
  - 3.10.2.1 Applications 215
- 3.10.3 Automotive 216
  - 3.10.3.1 Applications 216
  - 3.10.3.2 Production capacities 216
- 3.10.4 Building & construction 217
  - 3.10.4.1 Applications 217
  - 3.10.4.2 Production capacities 217
- 3.10.5 Textiles 218
  - 3.10.5.1 Apparel 218
  - 3.10.5.2 Footwear 219
  - 3.10.5.3 Medical textiles 221
  - 3.10.5.4 Production capacities 221
- 3.10.6 Electronics 222
  - 3.10.6.1 Applications 222
  - 3.10.6.2 Production capacities 222
- 3.10.7 Agriculture and horticulture 223
  - 3.10.7.1 Production capacities 224
3.11 NATURAL FIBERS 224
- 3.11.1 Manufacturing method, matrix materials and applications of natural fibers 228
- 3.11.2 Advantages of natural fibers 229
- 3.11.3 Commercially available next-gen natural fiber products 230
- 3.11.4 Market drivers for next-gen natural fibers 233
- 3.11.5 Challenges 235
- 3.11.6 Plants (cellulose, lignocellulose) 236
  - 3.11.6.1 Seed fibers 236
    - 3.11.6.1.1 Cotton 236
      - 3.11.6.1.1.1 Production volumes 2018-2033 237
    - 3.11.6.1.2 Kapok 237
      - 3.11.6.1.2.1 Production volumes 2018-2033 238
    - 3.11.6.1.3 Luffa 239
  - 3.11.6.2 Bast fibers 240
    - 3.11.6.2.1 Jute 240
    - 3.11.6.2.2 Production volumes 2018-2033 241
      - 3.11.6.2.2.1 Hemp 242
      - 3.11.6.2.2.2 Production volumes 2018-2033 242
    - 3.11.6.2.3 Flax 243
      - 3.11.6.2.3.1 Production volumes 2018-2033 244
    - 3.11.6.2.4 Ramie 245
      - 3.11.6.2.4.1 Production volumes 2018-2033 246
    - 3.11.6.2.5 Kenaf 246
      - 3.11.6.2.5.1 Production volumes 2018-2033 247
  - 3.11.6.3 Leaf fibers 248
    - 3.11.6.3.1 Sisal 248
      - 3.11.6.3.1.1 Production volumes 2018-2033 249
    - 3.11.6.3.2 Abaca 249
      - 3.11.6.3.2.1 Production volumes 2018-2033 250
  - 3.11.6.4 Fruit fibers 251
    - 3.11.6.4.1 Coir 251
      - 3.11.6.4.1.1 Production volumes 2018-2033 251
    - 3.11.6.4.2 Banana 252
      - 3.11.6.4.2.1 Production volumes 2018-2033 253
    - 3.11.6.4.3 Pineapple 254
  - 3.11.6.5 Stalk fibers from agricultural residues 255
    - 3.11.6.5.1 Rice fiber 255
    - 3.11.6.5.2 Corn 256
  - 3.11.6.6 Cane, grasses and reed 257
    - 3.11.6.6.1 Switch grass 257
    - 3.11.6.6.2 Sugarcane (agricultural residues) 257
    - 3.11.6.6.3 Bamboo 258
      - 3.11.6.6.3.1 Production volumes 2018-2033 259
    - 3.11.6.6.4 Fresh grass (green biorefinery) 259
  - 3.11.6.7 Modified natural polymers 260
    - 3.11.6.7.1 Mycelium 260
    - 3.11.6.7.2 Chitosan 262
    - 3.11.6.7.3 Alginate 263
- 3.11.7 Animal (fibrous protein) 265
  - 3.11.7.1 Wool 265
    - 3.11.7.1.1 Alternative wool materials 266
    - 3.11.7.1.2 Producers 266
  - 3.11.7.2 Silk fiber 266
    - 3.11.7.2.1 Alternative silk materials 267
      - 3.11.7.2.1.1 Producers 267
  - 3.11.7.3 Leather 268
    - 3.11.7.3.1 Alternative leather materials 269
      - 3.11.7.3.1.1 Producers 269
  - 3.11.7.4 Fur 271
    - 3.11.7.4.1 Producers 271
  - 3.11.7.5 Down 271
    - 3.11.7.5.1 Alternative down materials 271
      - 3.11.7.5.1.1 Producers 271
- 3.11.8 Markets for natural fibers 272
  - 3.11.8.1 Composites 272
  - 3.11.8.2 Applications 272
  - 3.11.8.3 Natural fiber injection moulding compounds 274
    - 3.11.8.3.1 Properties 274
    - 3.11.8.3.2 Applications 274
  - 3.11.8.4 Non-woven natural fiber mat composites 274
    - 3.11.8.4.1 Automotive 274
    - 3.11.8.4.2 Applications 275
  - 3.11.8.5 Aligned natural fiber-reinforced composites 275
  - 3.11.8.6 Natural fiber biobased polymer compounds 276
  - 3.11.8.7 Natural fiber biobased polymer non-woven mats 277
    - 3.11.8.7.1 Flax 277
    - 3.11.8.7.2 Kenaf 277
  - 3.11.8.8 Natural fiber thermoset bioresin composites 277
  - 3.11.8.9 Aerospace 278
    - 3.11.8.9.1 Market overview 278
  - 3.11.8.10 Automotive 278
    - 3.11.8.10.1 Market overview 278
    - 3.11.8.10.2 Applications of natural fibers 283
  - 3.11.8.11 Building/construction 283
    - 3.11.8.11.1 Market overview 284
    - 3.11.8.11.2 Applications of natural fibers 284
  - 3.11.8.12 Sports and leisure 285
    - 3.11.8.12.1 Market overview 285
  - 3.11.8.13 Textiles 286
    - 3.11.8.13.1 Market overview 286
    - 3.11.8.13.2 Consumer apparel 287
    - 3.11.8.13.3 Geotextiles 287
  - 3.11.8.14 Packaging 288
    - 3.11.8.14.1 Market overview 289
- 3.11.9 Global production of natural fibers 291
  - 3.11.9.1 Overall global fibers market 291
  - 3.11.9.2 Plant-based fiber production 293
  - 3.11.9.3 Animal-based natural fiber production 294
3.12 LIGNIN 295
- 3.12.1 Introduction 295
  - 3.12.1.1 What is lignin? 295
    - 3.12.1.1.1 Lignin structure 296
  - 3.12.1.2 Types of lignin 297
    - 3.12.1.2.1 Sulfur containing lignin 299
    - 3.12.1.2.2 Sulfur-free lignin from biorefinery process 299
  - 3.12.1.3 Properties 300
  - 3.12.1.4 The lignocellulose biorefinery 302
  - 3.12.1.5 Markets and applications 303
  - 3.12.1.6 Challenges for using lignin 304
3.12.2 Lignin production processes 305
- 3.12.2.1 Lignosulphonates 307
- 3.12.2.2 Kraft Lignin 307
  - 3.12.2.2.1 LignoBoost process 307
  - 3.12.2.2.2 LignoForce method 308
  - 3.12.2.2.3 Sequential Liquid Lignin Recovery and Purification 309
  - 3.12.2.2.4 A-Recovery+ 310
- 3.12.2.3 Soda lignin 311
- 3.12.2.4 Biorefinery lignin 311
  - 3.12.2.4.1 Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and processes 312
- 3.12.2.5 Organosolv lignins 314
- 3.12.2.6 Hydrolytic lignin 315
3.12.3 Markets for lignin 316
- 3.12.3.1 Market drivers and trends for lignin 316
- 3.12.3.2 Production capacities 317
  - 3.12.3.2.1 Technical lignin availability (dry ton/y) 317
  - 3.12.3.2.2 Biomass conversion (Biorefinery) 318
- 3.12.3.3 Estimated consumption of lignin 318
- 3.12.3.4 Prices 320
- 3.12.3.5 Heat and power energy 320
- 3.12.3.6 Pyrolysis and syngas 320
- 3.12.3.7 Aromatic compounds 320
  - 3.12.3.7.1 Benzene, toluene and xylene 321
  - 3.12.3.7.2 Phenol and phenolic resins 321
  - 3.12.3.7.3 Vanillin 322
- 3.12.3.8 Plastics and polymers 322
- 3.12.3.9 Hydrogels 323
- 3.12.3.10 Carbon materials 324
  - 3.12.3.10.1 Carbon black 324
  - 3.12.3.10.2 Activated carbons 324
  - 3.12.3.10.3 Carbon fiber 325
- 3.12.3.11 Concrete 326
- 3.12.3.12 Rubber 327
- 3.12.3.13 Biofuels 327
- 3.12.3.14 Bitumen and Asphalt 327
- 3.12.3.15 Oil and gas 328
- 3.12.3.16 Energy storage 329
  - 3.12.3.16.1 Supercapacitors 329
  - 3.12.3.16.2 Anodes for lithium-ion batteries 329
  - 3.12.3.16.3 Gel electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries 330
  - 3.12.3.16.4 Binders for lithium-ion batteries 330
  - 3.12.3.16.5 Cathodes for lithium-ion batteries 330
  - 3.12.3.16.6 Sodium-ion batteries 331
- 3.12.3.17 Binders, emulsifiers and dispersants 331
- 3.12.3.18 Chelating agents 333
- 3.12.3.19 Ceramics 334
- 3.12.3.20 Automotive interiors 334
- 3.12.3.21 Fire retardants 335
- 3.12.3.22 Antioxidants 335
- 3.12.3.23 Lubricants 335
- 3.12.3.24 Dust control 336
3.13 BIO-BASED MATERIALS, PLASTICS AND POLYMERS COMPANY PROFILES 337 (492 company profiles)

4 BIO-BASED FUELS MARKET 753

4.1 The global biofuels market 753
4.1.1 Diesel substitutes and alternatives 753
4.1.2 Gasoline substitutes and alternatives 755
4.2 Comparison of biofuel costs 2022, by type 755
4.3 Types 756
4.3.1 Solid Biofuels 756
4.3.2 Liquid Biofuels 757
4.3.3 Gaseous Biofuels 757
4.3.4 Conventional Biofuels 758
4.3.5 Advanced Biofuels 758
4.4 Feedstocks 759
4.4.1 First-generation (1-G) 761
4.4.2 Second-generation (2-G) 762
4.4.2.1 Lignocellulosic wastes and residues 763
4.4.2.2 Biorefinery lignin 764
4.4.3 Third-generation (3-G) 768
4.4.3.1 Algal biofuels 768
4.4.3.1.1 Properties 769
4.4.3.1.2 Advantages 769
4.4.4 Fourth-generation (4-G) 771
4.4.5 Advantages and disadvantages, by generation 771
4.5 HYDROCARBON BIOFUELS 772
4.5.1 Biodiesel 773
4.5.1.1 Biodiesel by generation 774
4.5.1.2 Production of biodiesel and other biofuels 775
4.5.1.2.1 Pyrolysis of biomass 776
4.5.1.2.2 Vegetable oil transesterification 779
4.5.1.2.3 Vegetable oil hydrogenation (HVO) 780
4.5.1.2.3.1 Production process 781
4.5.1.2.4 Biodiesel from tall oil 782
4.5.1.2.5 Fischer-Tropsch BioDiesel 782
4.5.1.2.6 Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass 784
4.5.1.2.7 CO2 capture and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) 785
4.5.1.2.8 Dymethyl ether (DME) 785
4.5.1.3 Global production and consumption 786
4.5.2 Renewable diesel 788
4.5.2.1 Production 788
4.5.2.2 Global consumption 789
4.5.3 Bio-jet (bio-aviation) fuels 791
4.5.3.1 Description 791
4.5.3.2 Global market 792
4.5.3.3 Production pathways 792
4.5.4 Costs 795
4.5.4.1 Biojet fuel production capacities 795
4.5.4.2 Challenges 796
4.5.4.3 Global consumption 796
4.5.5 Syngas 797
4.5.6 Biogas and biomethane 798
4.5.6.1 Feedstocks 801
4.5.7 Bio-naphtha 802
4.5.7.1 Overview 802
4.5.7.2 Markets and applications 803
4.5.7.3 Production capacities, by producer, current and planned 804
4.5.7.4 Production capacities, total (tonnes), historical, current and planned 806
4.6 ALCOHOL FUELS 807
4.6.1 Biomethanol 807
4.6.1.1 Methanol-to gasoline technology 807
4.6.1.1.1 Production processes 808
4.6.1.1.1.1 Anaerobic digestion 809
4.6.1.1.1.2 Biomass gasification 809
4.6.1.1.1.3 Power to Methane 810
4.6.2 Bioethanol 811
4.6.2.1 Technology description 811
4.6.2.2 1G Bio-Ethanol 812
4.6.2.3 Ethanol to jet fuel technology 812
4.6.2.4 Methanol from pulp & paper production 813
4.6.2.5 Sulfite spent liquor fermentation 813
4.6.2.6 Gasification 814
4.6.2.6.1 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 814
4.6.2.7 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 814
4.6.2.8 CO2 capture and alcohol synthesis 815
4.6.2.9 Biomass hydrolysis and fermentation 815
4.6.2.9.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation 815
4.6.2.9.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) 816
4.6.2.9.3 Pre-hydrolysis and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (PSSF) 816
4.6.2.9.4 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) 817
4.6.2.9.5 Direct conversion (consolidated bioprocessing) (CBP) 817
4.6.2.10 Global ethanol consumption 818
4.6.3 Biobutanol 819
4.6.3.1 Production 821
4.7 BIOFUEL FROM PLASTIC WASTE AND USED TIRES 822
4.7.1 Plastic pyrolysis 822
4.7.2 Used tires pyrolysis 823
4.7.2.1 Conversion to biofuel 824
4.8 ELECTROFUELS (E-FUELS) 826
4.8.1 Introduction 826
4.8.1.1 Benefits of e-fuels 828
4.8.2 Feedstocks 829
4.8.2.1 Hydrogen electrolysis 829
4.8.2.2 CO2 capture 830
4.8.3 Production 830
4.8.4 Electrolysers 832
4.8.4.1 Commercial alkaline electrolyser cells (AECs) 834
4.8.4.2 PEM electrolysers (PEMEC) 834
4.8.4.3 High-temperature solid oxide electrolyser cells (SOECs) 834
4.8.5 Costs 835
4.8.6 Market challenges 838
4.8.7 Companies 839
4.9 ALGAE-DERIVED BIOFUELS 840
4.9.1 Technology description 840
4.9.2 Production 840
4.10 GREEN AMMONIA 842
4.10.1 Production 842
4.10.1.1 Decarbonisation of ammonia production 844
4.10.1.2 Green ammonia projects 845
4.10.2 Green ammonia synthesis methods 845
4.10.2.1 Haber-Bosch process 845
4.10.2.2 Biological nitrogen fixation 846
4.10.2.3 Electrochemical production 847
4.10.2.3.1 Chemical looping processes 847
4.10.3 Blue ammonia 847
4.10.3.1 Blue ammonia projects 847
4.10.4 Markets and applications 848
4.10.4.1 Chemical energy storage 848
4.10.4.1.1 Ammonia fuel cells 848
4.10.4.2 Marine fuel 849
4.10.5 Costs 851
4.10.6 Estimated market demand 853
4.10.7 Companies and projects 853
4.11 BIO-BASED FUELS COMPANY PROFILES 855 (141 Company profiles)

5 BIO-BASED PAINTS AND COATINGS MARKET 977

5.1 The global paints and coatings market 977
5.2 Bio-based paints and coatings 977
5.3 Challenges using bio-based paints and coatings 978
5.4 Types of bio-based coatings and materials 979
5.4.1 Alkyd coatings 979
5.4.1.1 Alkyd resin properties 979
5.4.1.2 Biobased alkyd coatings 980
5.4.1.3 Products 981
5.4.2 Polyurethane coatings 982
5.4.2.1 Properties 982
5.4.2.2 Biobased polyurethane coatings 983
5.4.2.3 Products 984
5.4.3 Epoxy coatings 985
5.4.3.1 Properties 985
5.4.3.2 Biobased epoxy coatings 986
5.4.3.3 Products 988
5.4.4 Acrylate resins 988
5.4.4.1 Properties 989
5.4.4.2 Biobased acrylates 989
5.4.4.3 Products 989
5.4.5 Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) 990
5.4.5.1 Properties 992
5.4.5.2 Bio-PLA coatings and films 993
5.4.6 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 993
5.4.6.1 Properties 995
5.4.6.2 PHA coatings 997
5.4.6.3 Commercially available PHAs 998
5.4.7 Cellulose 1000
5.4.7.1 Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) 1006
5.4.7.1.1 Properties 1006
5.4.7.1.2 Applications in paints and coatings 1007
5.4.7.2 Cellulose nanofibers 1008
5.4.7.2.1 Properties 1008
5.4.7.2.2 Product developers 1010
5.4.7.3 Cellulose nanocrystals 1012
5.4.7.4 Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC) 1014
5.4.8 Rosins 1014
5.4.9 Biobased carbon black 1015
5.4.9.1 Lignin-based 1015
5.4.9.2 Algae-based 1015
5.4.10 Lignin 1015
5.4.10.1 Application in coatings 1016
5.4.11 Edible coatings 1016
5.4.12 Protein-based biomaterials for coatings 1018
5.4.12.1 Plant derived proteins 1018
5.4.12.2 Animal origin proteins 1018
5.4.13 Alginate 1020
5.5 Market for bio-based paints and coatings 1022
5.5.1 Global market revenues to 2033, total 1022
5.5.2 Global market revenues to 2033, by market 1023
5.6 BIO-BASED PAINTS AND COATINGS COMPANY PROFILES 1027 (130 company profiles)

6 CARBON CAPTURE, UTILIZATION AND STORAGE MARKET 1148

6.1 Main sources of carbon dioxide emissions 1148
6.2 CO2 as a commodity 1149
6.3 Meeting climate targets 1151
6.4 Market drivers and trends 1152
6.5 The current market and future outlook 1153
6.6 CCUS Industry developments 2020-2023 1154
6.7 CCUS investments 1159
- 6.7.1 Venture Capital Funding 1159
6.8 Government CCUS initiatives 1160
- 6.8.1 North America 1160
- 6.8.2 Europe 1160
- 6.8.3 China 1161
6.9 Market map 1163
6.10 Commercial CCUS facilities and projects 1165
- 6.10.1 Facilities 1166
  - 6.10.1.1 Operational 1166
  - 6.10.1.2 Under development/construction 1168
6.11 CCUS Value Chain 1174
6.12 Key market barriers for CCUS 1175
6.13 What is CCUS? 1176
- 6.13.1 Carbon Capture 1181
  - 6.13.1.1 Source Characterization 1181
  - 6.13.1.2 Purification 1182
  - 6.13.1.3 CO2 capture technologies 1183
- 6.13.2 Carbon Utilization 1186
  - 6.13.2.1 CO2 utilization pathways 1187
- 6.13.3 Carbon storage 1188
  - 6.13.3.1 Passive storage 1188
  - 6.13.3.2 Enhanced oil recovery 1189
6.14 Transporting CO2 1190
- 6.14.1 Methods of CO2 transport 1190
  - 6.14.1.1 Pipeline 1191
  - 6.14.1.2 Ship 1192
  - 6.14.1.3 Road 1192
  - 6.14.1.4 Rail 1192
- 6.14.2 Safety 1193
6.15 Costs 1194
- 6.15.1 Cost of CO2 transport 1195
6.16 Carbon credits 1197
6.17 CARBON CAPTURE 1198
- 6.17.1 CO2 capture from point sources 1199
  - 6.17.1.1 Transportation 1200
  - 6.17.1.2 Global point source CO2 capture capacities 1200
  - 6.17.1.3 By source 1202
  - 6.17.1.4 By endpoint 1203
- 6.17.2 Main carbon capture processes 1204
  - 6.17.2.1 Materials 1204
  - 6.17.2.2 Post-combustion 1206
  - 6.17.2.3 Oxy-fuel combustion 1207
  - 6.17.2.4 Liquid or supercritical CO2: Allam-Fetvedt Cycle 1208
  - 6.17.2.5 Pre-combustion 1209
- 6.17.3 Carbon separation technologies 1210
  - 6.17.3.1 Absorption capture 1212
  - 6.17.3.2 Adsorption capture 1216
  - 6.17.3.3 Membranes 1218
  - 6.17.3.4 Liquid or supercritical CO2 (Cryogenic) capture 1220
  - 6.17.3.5 Chemical Looping-Based Capture 1221
  - 6.17.3.6 Calix Advanced Calciner 1222
  - 6.17.3.7 Other technologies 1223
    - 6.17.3.7.1 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) 1224
    - 6.17.3.7.2 Microalgae Carbon Capture 1225
  - 6.17.3.8 Comparison of key separation technologies 1226
  - 6.17.3.9 Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separtion technologies 1227
- 6.17.4 Opportunities and barriers 1228
- 6.17.5 Costs of CO2 capture 1230
- 6.17.6 CO2 capture capacity 1231
- 6.17.7 Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) 1233
  - 6.17.7.1 Overview of technology 1233
  - 6.17.7.2 Biomass conversion 1235
  - 6.17.7.3 BECCS facilities 1235
  - 6.17.7.4 Challenges 1236
- 6.17.8 Direct air capture (DAC) 1237
  - 6.17.8.1 Description 1237
  - 6.17.8.2 Deployment 1239
  - 6.17.8.3 Point source carbon capture versus Direct Air Capture 1239
  - 6.17.8.4 Technologies 1240
    - 6.17.8.4.1 Solid sorbents 1241
    - 6.17.8.4.2 Liquid sorbents 1243
    - 6.17.8.4.3 Liquid solvents 1244
    - 6.17.8.4.4 Airflow equipment integration 1245
    - 6.17.8.4.5 Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) 1245
    - 6.17.8.4.6 Direct conversion 1245
    - 6.17.8.4.7 Co-product generation 1246
    - 6.17.8.4.8 Low Temperature DAC 1246
    - 6.17.8.4.9 Regeneration methods 1246
  - 6.17.8.5 Commercialization and plants 1247
  - 6.17.8.6 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in DAC 1248
  - 6.17.8.7 DAC plants and projects-current and planned 1248
  - 6.17.8.8 Markets for DAC 1255
  - 6.17.8.9 Costs 1255
  - 6.17.8.10 Challenges 1261
  - 6.17.8.11 Players and production 1261
- 6.17.9 Other technologies 1262
  - 6.17.9.1 Enhanced weathering 1263
  - 6.17.9.2 Afforestation and reforestation 1263
  - 6.17.9.3 Soil carbon sequestration (SCS) 1264
  - 6.17.9.4 Biochar 1264
  - 6.17.9.5 Ocean fertilisation 1266
  - 6.17.9.6 Ocean alkalinisation 1266
6.18 CARBON UTILIZATION 1268
- 6.18.1 Overview 1268
  - 6.18.1.1 Current market status 1268
  - 6.18.1.2 Benefits of carbon utilization 1272
  - 6.18.1.3 Market challenges 1274
- 6.18.2 Co2 utilization pathways 1275
- 6.18.3 Conversion processes 1278
  - 6.18.3.1 Thermochemical 1278
    - 6.18.3.1.1 Process overview 1278
    - 6.18.3.1.2 Plasma-assisted CO2 conversion 1281
  - 6.18.3.2 Electrochemical conversion of CO2 1282
    - 6.18.3.2.1 Process overview 1283
  - 6.18.3.3 Photocatalytic and photothermal catalytic conversion of CO2 1285
  - 6.18.3.4 Catalytic conversion of CO2 1285
  - 6.18.3.5 Biological conversion of CO2 1286
  - 6.18.3.6 Copolymerization of CO2 1289
  - 6.18.3.7 Mineral carbonation 1291
- 6.18.4 CO2-derived products 1294
  - 6.18.4.1 Fuels 1294
    - 6.18.4.1.1 Overview 1294
    - 6.18.4.1.2 Production routes 1296
    - 6.18.4.1.3 Methanol 1297
    - 6.18.4.1.4 Algae based biofuels 1298
    - 6.18.4.1.5 CO₂-fuels from solar 1299
    - 6.18.4.1.6 Companies 1300
    - 6.18.4.1.7 Challenges 1303
  - 6.18.4.2 Chemicals 1303
    - 6.18.4.2.1 Overview 1303
    - 6.18.4.2.2 Scalability 1304
    - 6.18.4.2.3 Applications 1305
      - 6.18.4.2.3.1 Urea production 1305
      - 6.18.4.2.3.2 CO₂-derived polymers 1305
      - 6.18.4.2.3.3 Inert gas in semiconductor manufacturing 1306
      - 6.18.4.2.3.4 Carbon nanotubes 1306
    - 6.18.4.2.4 Companies 1307
  - 6.18.4.3 Construction materials 1309
    - 6.18.4.3.1 Overview 1309
    - 6.18.4.3.2 CCUS technologies 1310
    - 6.18.4.3.3 Carbonated aggregates 1313
    - 6.18.4.3.4 Additives during mixing 1314
    - 6.18.4.3.5 Concrete curing 1314
    - 6.18.4.3.6 Costs 1315
    - 6.18.4.3.7 Companies 1315
    - 6.18.4.3.8 Challenges 1317
  - 6.18.4.4 CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting 1318
    - 6.18.4.4.1 Overview 1318
    - 6.18.4.4.2 Applications 1318
      - 6.18.4.4.2.1 Greenhouses 1318
      - 6.18.4.4.2.2 Algae cultivation 1318
      - 6.18.4.4.2.3 Microbial conversion 1319
      - 6.18.4.4.2.4 Food and feed production 1321
    - 6.18.4.4.3 Companies 1321
- 6.18.5 CO₂ Utilization in Enhanced Oil Recovery 1323
  - 6.18.5.1 Overview 1323
    - 6.18.5.1.1 Process 1323
    - 6.18.5.1.2 CO₂ sources 1324
  - 6.18.5.2 CO₂-EOR facilities and projects 1325
  - 6.18.5.3 Challenges 1327
- 6.18.6 Enhanced mineralization 1328
  - 6.18.6.1 Advantages 1328
  - 6.18.6.2 In situ and ex-situ mineralization 1329
  - 6.18.6.3 Enhanced mineralization pathways 1330
  - 6.18.6.4 Challenges 1331
6.19 CARBON STORAGE 1332
- 6.19.1 CO2 storage sites 1333
  - 6.19.1.1 Storage types for geologic CO2 storage 1333
  - 6.19.1.2 Oil and gas fields 1335
  - 6.19.1.3 Saline formations 1336
- 6.19.2 Global CO2 storage capacity 1339
- 6.19.3 Costs 1341
- 6.19.4 Challenges 1341
- 6.20 COMPANY PROFILES 1343 (241 company profiles)

7 ADVANCED RECYCLING 1528

7.1 Classification of recycling technologies 1528
7.2 Introduction 1529
7.3 Plastic recycling 1530
- 7.3.1 Mechanical recycling 1532
  - 7.3.1.1 Closed-loop mechanical recycling 1533
  - 7.3.1.2 Open-loop mechanical recycling 1533
  - 7.3.1.3 Polymer types, use, and recovery 1533
- 7.3.2 Advanced chemical recycling 1534
  - 7.3.2.1 Main streams of plastic waste 1534
  - 7.3.2.2 Comparison of mechanical and advanced chemical recycling 1535
7.4 The advanced recycling market 1537
- 7.4.1 Market drivers and trends 1537
- 7.4.2 Industry developments 2020-2023 1538
- 7.4.3 Capacities 1541
- 7.4.4 Global polymer demand 2022-2040, segmented by recycling technology 1544
- 7.4.5 Global market by recycling process 1545
- 7.4.6 Chemically recycled plastic products 1546
- 7.4.7 Market map 1547
- 7.4.8 Value chain 1548
- 7.4.9 Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) of advanced chemical recycling processes 1549
- 7.4.10 Market challenges 1550
7.5 Advanced recycling technologies 1551
- 7.5.1 Applications 1551
  - 7.5.1.1 Pyrolysis 1552
  - 7.5.1.2 Non-catalytic 1553
  - 7.5.1.3 Catalytic 1554
    - 7.5.1.3.1 Polystyrene pyrolysis 1556
    - 7.5.1.3.2 Pyrolysis for production of bio fuel 1556
    - 7.5.1.3.3 Used tires pyrolysis 1560
    - 7.5.1.3.4 Conversion to biofuel 1561
    - 7.5.1.3.5 Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes 1562
  - 7.5.1.4 SWOT analysis 1563
  - 7.5.1.4.1 Companies and capacities 1563
- 7.5.2 Gasification 1565
  - 7.5.2.1 Technology overview 1565
    - 7.5.2.1.1 Syngas conversion to methanol 1566
    - 7.5.2.1.2 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 1570
    - 7.5.2.1.3 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 1570
  - 7.5.2.2 SWOT analysis 1571
  - 7.5.2.3 Companies and capacities (current and planned) 1572
- 7.5.3 Dissolution 1573
  - 7.5.3.1 Technology overview 1573
  - 7.5.3.2 SWOT analysis 1574
  - 7.5.3.3 Companies and capacities (current and planned) 1575
- 7.5.4 Depolymerisation 1576
  - 7.5.4.1 Hydrolysis 1578
    - 7.5.4.1.1 Technology overview 1578
    - 7.5.4.1.2 SWOT analysis 1579
  - 7.5.4.2 Enzymolysis 1580
    - 7.5.4.2.1 Technology overview 1580
    - 7.5.4.2.2 SWOT analysis 1581
  - 7.5.4.3 Methanolysis 1582
    - 7.5.4.3.1 Technology overview 1582
    - 7.5.4.3.2 SWOT analysis 1583
  - 7.5.4.4 Glycolysis 1584
    - 7.5.4.4.1 Technology overview 1584
    - 7.5.4.4.2 SWOT analysis 1586
  - 7.5.4.5 Aminolysis 1586
    - 7.5.4.5.1 Technology overview 1587
    - 7.5.4.5.2 SWOT analysis 1587
  - 7.5.4.6 Companies and capacities (current and planned) 1588
- 7.5.5 Other advanced chemical recycling technologies 1589
  - 7.5.5.1 Hydrothermal cracking 1589
  - 7.5.5.2 Pyrolysis with in-line reforming 1590
  - 7.5.5.3 Microwave-assisted pyrolysis 1590
  - 7.5.5.4 Plasma pyrolysis 1591
  - 7.5.5.5 Plasma gasification 1592
  - 7.5.5.6 Supercritical fluids 1592
  - 7.5.5.7 Carbon fiber recycling 1593
    - 7.5.5.7.1 Processes 1593
    - 7.5.5.7.2 Companies 1596
7.6 COMPANY PROFILES 1597 (144 company profiles)

8 REFERENCES 1722

List of Tables

Table 1. List of Bio-based chemicals. 81
Table 2. Lactide applications. 98
Table 3. Biobased MEG producers capacities. 101
Table 4. Bio-naphtha market value chain. 103
Table 5. Bio-naptha producers and production capacities. 105
Table 6. Type of biodegradation. 115
Table 7. Advantages and disadvantages of biobased plastics compared to conventional plastics. 116
Table 8. Types of Bio-based and/or Biodegradable Plastics, applications. 117
Table 9. Market leader by Bio-based and/or Biodegradable Plastic types. 118
Table 10. Bioplastics regional production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 119
Table 11. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications. 131
Table 12. Lactic acid producers and production capacities. 133
Table 13. PLA producers and production capacities. 134
Table 14. Planned PLA capacity expansions in China. 134
Table 15. Bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications. 136
Table 16. Bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) producers and production capacities, 137
Table 17. Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications. 139
Table 18. Production capacities of Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT), by leading producers. 139
Table 19. Polyethylene furanoate (PEF) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications. 141
Table 20. PEF vs. PET. 142
Table 21. FDCA and PEF producers. 143
Table 22. Bio-based polyamides (Bio-PA) market analysis - manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications. 145
Table 23. Leading Bio-PA producers production capacities. 146
Table 24. Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications. 147
Table 25. Leading PBAT producers, production capacities and brands. 148
Table 26. Bio-PBS market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications. 150
Table 27. Leading PBS producers and production capacities. 151
Table 28. Bio-based Polyethylene (Bio-PE) market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications. 152
Table 29. Leading Bio-PE producers. 153
Table 30. Bio-PP market analysis- manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications. 155
Table 31. Leading Bio-PP producers and capacities. 155
Table 32.Types of PHAs and properties. 160
Table 33. Comparison of the physical properties of different PHAs with conventional petroleum-based polymers. 162
Table 34. Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) extraction methods. 164
Table 35. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) market analysis. 166
Table 36. Commercially available PHAs. 167
Table 37. Markets and applications for PHAs. 169
Table 38. Applications, advantages and disadvantages of PHAs in packaging. 170
Table 39. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) producers. 173
Table 40. Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) market analysis-manufacture, advantages, disadvantages and applications. 176
Table 41. Leading MFC producers and capacities. 177
Table 42. Synthesis methods for cellulose nanocrystals (CNC). 178
Table 43. CNC sources, size and yield. 179
Table 44. CNC properties. 180
Table 45. Mechanical properties of CNC and other reinforcement materials. 181
Table 46. Applications of nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC). 182
Table 47. Cellulose nanocrystals analysis. 183
Table 48: Cellulose nanocrystal production capacities and production process, by producer. 184
Table 49. Applications of cellulose nanofibers (CNF). 185
Table 50. Cellulose nanofibers market analysis. 186
Table 51. CNF production capacities (by type, wet or dry) and production process, by producer, metric tonnes. 188
Table 52. Applications of bacterial nanocellulose (BNC). 192
Table 53. Types of protein based-bioplastics, applications and companies. 194
Table 54. Types of algal and fungal based-bioplastics, applications and companies. 195
Table 55. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size. 196
Table 56. Companies developing algal-based bioplastics. 197
Table 57. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 198
Table 58. Companies developing mycelium-based bioplastics. 200
Table 59. Overview of chitosan-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 201
Table 60. Global production capacities of biobased and sustainable plastics in 2019-2033, by region, tons. 202
Table 61. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in North America. 203
Table 62. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in Europe. 204
Table 63. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in Asia-Pacific. 205
Table 64. Biobased and sustainable plastics producers in Latin America. 206
Table 65. Processes for bioplastics in packaging. 208
Table 66. Comparison of bioplastics’ (PLA and PHAs) properties to other common polymers used in product packaging. 210
Table 67. Typical applications for bioplastics in flexible packaging. 211
Table 68. Typical applications for bioplastics in rigid packaging. 213
Table 69. Types of next-gen natural fibers. 225
Table 70. Application, manufacturing method, and matrix materials of natural fibers. 228
Table 71. Typical properties of natural fibers. 230
Table 72. Commercially available next-gen natural fiber products. 230
Table 73. Market drivers for natural fibers. 233
Table 74. Overview of cotton fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 236
Table 75. Overview of kapok fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 237
Table 76. Overview of luffa fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 239
Table 77. Overview of jute fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 240
Table 78. Overview of hemp fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 242
Table 79. Overview of flax fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 243
Table 80. Overview of ramie fibers- description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 245
Table 81. Overview of kenaf fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 246
Table 82. Overview of sisal leaf fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 248
Table 83. Overview of abaca fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 249
Table 84. Overview of coir fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 251
Table 85. Overview of banana fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 252
Table 86. Overview of pineapple fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 254
Table 87. Overview of rice fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 255
Table 88. Overview of corn fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 256
Table 89. Overview of switch grass fibers-description, properties and applications. 257
Table 90. Overview of sugarcane fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and application and market size. 257
Table 91. Overview of bamboo fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 258
Table 92. Overview of mycelium fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 262
Table 93. Overview of chitosan fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 263
Table 94. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size. 264
Table 95. Overview of wool fibers-description, properties, drawbacks and applications. 265
Table 96. Alternative wool materials producers. 266
Table 97. Overview of silk fibers-description, properties, application and market size. 267
Table 98. Alternative silk materials producers. 268
Table 99. Alternative leather materials producers. 269
Table 100. Next-gen fur producers. 271
Table 101. Alternative down materials producers. 271
Table 102. Applications of natural fiber composites. 272
Table 103. Typical properties of short natural fiber-thermoplastic composites. 274
Table 104. Properties of non-woven natural fiber mat composites. 275
Table 105. Properties of aligned natural fiber composites. 276
Table 106. Properties of natural fiber-bio-based polymer compounds. 276
Table 107. Properties of natural fiber-bio-based polymer non-woven mats. 277
Table 108. Natural fibers in the aerospace sector-market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 278
Table 109. Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite in the automotive market. 280
Table 110. Natural fibers in the aerospace sector- market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 281
Table 111. Applications of natural fibers in the automotive industry. 283
Table 112. Natural fibers in the building/construction sector- market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 284
Table 113. Applications of natural fibers in the building/construction sector. 284
Table 114. Natural fibers in the sports and leisure sector-market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 285
Table 115. Natural fibers in the textiles sector- market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 286
Table 116. Natural fibers in the packaging sector-market drivers, applications and challenges for NF use. 289
Table 117. Technical lignin types and applications. 297
Table 118. Classification of technical lignins. 299
Table 119. Lignin content of selected biomass. 300
Table 120. Properties of lignins and their applications. 301
Table 121. Example markets and applications for lignin. 303
Table 122. Processes for lignin production. 305
Table 123. Biorefinery feedstocks. 311
Table 124. Comparison of pulping and biorefinery lignins. 311
Table 125. Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and processes 312
Table 126. Market drivers and trends for lignin. 316
Table 127. Production capacities of technical lignin producers. 317
Table 128. Production capacities of biorefinery lignin producers. 318
Table 129. Estimated consumption of lignin, 2019-2033 (000 MT). 318
Table 130. Prices of benzene, toluene, xylene and their derivatives. 321
Table 131. Application of lignin in plastics and polymers. 322
Table 132. Lignin-derived anodes in lithium batteries. 329
Table 133. Application of lignin in binders, emulsifiers and dispersants. 331
Table 134. Lactips plastic pellets. 545
Table 135. Oji Holdings CNF products. 617
Table 136. Comparison of biofuel costs (USD/liter) 2022, by type. 755
Table 137. Categories and examples of solid biofuel. 756
Table 138. Comparison of biofuels and e-fuels to fossil and electricity. 758
Table 139. Classification of biomass feedstock. 759
Table 140. Biorefinery feedstocks. 760
Table 141. Feedstock conversion pathways. 760
Table 142. First-Generation Feedstocks. 761
Table 143. Lignocellulosic ethanol plants and capacities. 763
Table 144. Comparison of pulping and biorefinery lignins. 764
Table 145. Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and processes 765
Table 146. Operating and planned lignocellulosic biorefineries and industrial flue gas-to-ethanol. 767
Table 147. Properties of microalgae and macroalgae. 769
Table 148. Yield of algae and other biodiesel crops. 770
Table 149. Advantages and disadvantages of biofuels, by generation. 771
Table 150. Biodiesel by generation. 774
Table 151. Biodiesel production techniques. 776
Table 152. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions. 776
Table 153. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield. 778
Table 154. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process. 778
Table 155. Properties of vegetable oils in comparison to diesel. 780
Table 156. Main producers of HVO and capacities. 781
Table 157. Example commercial Development of BtL processes. 782
Table 158. Pilot or demo projects for biomass to liquid (BtL) processes. 783
Table 159. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2033 (M litres/year). 787
Table 160. Global renewable diesel consumption, to 2033 (M litres/year). 790
Table 161. Advantages and disadvantages of biojet fuel 791
Table 162. Production pathways for bio-jet fuel. 793
Table 163. Current and announced biojet fuel facilities and capacities. 795
Table 164. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2033 (Million litres/year). 796
Table 165. Biogas feedstocks. 801
Table 166. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications. 803
Table 167. Bio-naphtha market value chain. 803
Table 168. Bio-based Naphtha production capacities, by producer. 804
Table 169. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas. 809
Table 170. Processes in bioethanol production. 816
Table 171. Microorganisms used in CBP for ethanol production from biomass lignocellulosic. 817
Table 172. Ethanol consumption 2010-2033 (million litres). 818
Table 173. Applications of e-fuels, by type. 827
Table 174. Overview of e-fuels. 828
Table 175. Benefits of e-fuels. 828
Table 176. Main characteristics of different electrolyzer technologies. 833
Table 177. Market challenges for e-fuels. 838
Table 178. E-fuels companies. 839
Table 179. Green ammonia projects (current and planned). 845
Table 180. Blue ammonia projects. 847
Table 181. Ammonia fuel cell technologies. 848
Table 182. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel. 849
Table 183. Summary of marine alternative fuels. 850
Table 184. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia. 852
Table 185. Main players in green ammonia. 853
Table 186. Granbio Nanocellulose Processes. 906
Table 187. Types of alkyd resins and properties. 979
Table 188. Market summary for biobased alkyd coatings-raw materials, advantages, disadvantages, applications and producers. 981
Table 189. Biobased alkyd coating products. 981
Table 190. Types of polyols. 983
Table 191. Polyol producers. 984
Table 192. Biobased polyurethane coating products. 984
Table 193. Market summary for biobased epoxy resins. 986
Table 194. Biobased polyurethane coating products. 988
Table 195. Biobased acrylate resin products. 989
Table 196. Polylactic acid (PLA) market analysis. 990
Table 197. PLA producers and production capacities. 992
Table 198. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) market analysis. 994
Table 199.Types of PHAs and properties. 997
Table 200. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) producers. 998
Table 201. Commercially available PHAs. 999
Table 202. Properties of micro/nanocellulose, by type. 1002
Table 203. Types of nanocellulose. 1005
Table 204: MFC production capacities (by type, wet or dry) and production process, by producer, metric tonnes. 1007
Table 205. Market overview for cellulose nanofibers in paints and coatings. 1008
Table 206. Companies developing cellulose nanofibers products in paints and coatings. 1010
Table 207. CNC properties. 1012
Table 208: Cellulose nanocrystal capacities (by type, wet or dry) and production process, by producer, metric tonnes. 1013
Table 209. Edible coatings market summary. 1017
Table 210. Types of protein based-biomaterials, applications and companies. 1019
Table 211. Overview of alginate-description, properties, application and market size. 1020
Table 212. Global market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033 (billions USD). 1022
Table 213. Market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033(billions USD), conservative estimate. 1023
Table 214. Market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033 (billions USD), high estimate. 1025
Table 215. Oji Holdings CNF products. 1112
Table 216. Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) market drivers and trends. 1152
Table 217. Carbon capture, usage, and storage (CCUS) industry developments 2020-2023. 1154
Table 218. Demonstration and commercial CCUS facilities in China. 1161
Table 219. Global commercial CCUS facilities-in operation. 1166
Table 220. Global commercial CCUS facilities-under development/construction. 1168
Table 221. Key market barriers for CCUS. 1175
Table 222. CO2 utilization and removal pathways 1178
Table 223. Approaches for capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from point sources. 1181
Table 224. CO2 capture technologies. 1183
Table 225. Advantages and challenges of carbon capture technologies. 1184
Table 226. Overview of commercial materials and processes utilized in carbon capture. 1185
Table 227. Methods of CO2 transport. 1191
Table 228. Carbon capture, transport, and storage cost per unit of CO2 1194
Table 229. Estimated capital costs for commercial-scale carbon capture. 1194
Table 230. Point source examples. 1199
Table 231. Assessment of carbon capture materials 1204
Table 232. Chemical solvents used in post-combustion. 1207
Table 233. Commercially available physical solvents for pre-combustion carbon capture. 1210
Table 234. Main capture processes and their separation technologies. 1210
Table 235. Absorption methods for CO2 capture overview. 1212
Table 236. Commercially available physical solvents used in CO2 absorption. 1214
Table 237. Adsorption methods for CO2 capture overview. 1216
Table 238. Membrane-based methods for CO2 capture overview. 1218
Table 239. Benefits and drawbacks of microalgae carbon capture. 1226
Table 240. Comparison of main separation technologies. 1226
Table 241. Technology readiness level (TRL) of gas separtion technologies 1227
Table 242. Opportunities and Barriers by sector. 1228
Table 243. Existing and planned capacity for sequestration of biogenic carbon. 1235
Table 244. Existing facilities with capture and/or geologic sequestration of biogenic CO2. 1236
Table 245. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC. 1238
Table 246. Companies developing airflow equipment integration with DAC. 1245
Table 247. Companies developing Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) technologies. 1245
Table 248. Companies developing regeneration methods for DAC technologies. 1246
Table 249. DAC companies and technologies. 1247
Table 250. DAC technology developers and production. 1249
Table 251. DAC projects in development. 1254
Table 252. Markets for DAC. 1255
Table 253. Costs summary for DAC. 1255
Table 254. Cost estimates of DAC. 1259
Table 255. Challenges for DAC technology. 1261
Table 256. DAC companies and technologies. 1262
Table 257. Biological CCS technologies. 1262
Table 258. Biochar in carbon capture overview. 1265
Table 259. Carbon utilization revenue forecast by product (US$). 1272
Table 260. CO2 utilization and removal pathways. 1272
Table 261. Market challenges for CO2 utilization. 1274
Table 262. Example CO2 utilization pathways. 1275
Table 263. CO2 derived products via Thermochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 1278
Table 264. Electrochemical CO₂ reduction products. 1282
Table 265. CO2 derived products via electrochemical conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 1283
Table 266. CO2 derived products via biological conversion-applications, advantages and disadvantages. 1287
Table 267. Companies developing and producing CO2-based polymers. 1290
Table 268. Companies developing mineral carbonation technologies. 1293
Table 269. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels. 1294
Table 270. Microalgae products and prices. 1298
Table 271. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches. 1299
Table 272. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products. 1300
Table 273. Commodity chemicals and fuels manufactured from CO2. 1304
Table 274. Companies in CO2-derived chemicals products. 1307
Table 275. Carbon capture technologies and projects in the cement sector 1310
Table 276. Companies in CO2 derived building materials. 1315
Table 277. Market challenges for CO2 utilization in construction materials. 1317
Table 278. Companies in CO2 Utilization in Biological Yield-Boosting. 1321
Table 279. Applications of CCS in oil and gas production. 1323
Table 280. CO2 EOR/Storage Challenges. 1331
Table 281. Storage and utilization of CO2. 1332
Table 282. Global depleted reservoir storage projects. 1334
Table 283. Global CO2 ECBM storage projects. 1334
Table 284. CO2 EOR/storage projects. 1335
Table 285. Global storage sites-saline aquifer projects. 1337
Table 286. Global storage capacity estimates, by region. 1339
Table 287. Types of recycling. 1528
Table 288. Overview of the recycling technologies. 1532
Table 289. Polymer types, use, and recovery. 1533
Table 290. Composition of plastic waste streams. 1535
Table 291. Comparison of mechanical and advanced chemical recycling. 1535
Table 292. Market drivers and trends in the advanced chemical recycling market. 1537
Table 293. Advanced recycling industry developments 2020-2023. 1538
Table 294. Advanced recycling capacities, by technology. 1541
Table 295. Example chemically recycled plastic products. 1546
Table 296. Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) of Advanced Chemical Recycling Processes. 1549
Table 297. Challenges in the advanced recycling market. 1550
Table 298. Applications of chemically recycled materials. 1551
Table 299. Summary of non-catalytic pyrolysis technologies. 1553
Table 300. Summary of catalytic pyrolysis technologies. 1554
Table 301. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions. 1558
Table 302. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield. 1559
Table 303. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process. 1560
Table 304. Pyrolysis companies and plant capacities, current and planned. 1564
Table 305. Summary of gasification technologies. 1565
Table 306. Advanced recycling (Gasification) companies. 1572
Table 307. Summary of dissolution technologies. 1573
Table 308. Advanced recycling (Dissolution) companies 1575
Table 309. depolymerisation processes for PET, PU, PC and PA, products and yields. 1577
Table 310. Summary of hydrolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 1578
Table 311. Summary of Enzymolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 1580
Table 312. Summary of methanolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 1582
Table 313. Summary of glycolysis technologies-feedstocks, process, outputs, commercial maturity and technology developers. 1584
Table 314. Summary of aminolysis technologies. 1587
Table 315. Advanced recycling (Depolymerisation) companies and capacities (current and planned). 1588
Table 316. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling. 1589
Table 317. Overview of Pyrolysis with in-line reforming for advanced chemical recycling. 1590
Table 318. Overview of microwave-assisted pyrolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 1590
Table 319. Overview of plasma pyrolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 1591
Table 320. Overview of plasma gasification for advanced chemical recycling. 1592
Table 321. Summary of carbon fiber (CF) recycling technologies. Advantages and disadvantages. 1594
Table 322. Retention rate of tensile properties of recovered carbon fibres by different recycling processes. 1595
Table 323. Recycled carbon fiber producers, technology and capacity. 1596

List of Figures

Figure 1. Bio-based chemicals and feedstocks production capacities, 2018-2033. 83
Figure 2. Overview of Toray process. Overview of process 83
Figure 3. Production capacities for 11-Aminoundecanoic acid (11-AA) 85
Figure 4. 1,4-Butanediol (BDO) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 86
Figure 5. Dodecanedioic acid (DDDA) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 87
Figure 6. Epichlorohydrin production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 88
Figure 7. Ethylene production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 89
Figure 8. Potential industrial uses of 3-hydroxypropanoic acid. 95
Figure 9. L-lactic acid (L-LA) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 97
Figure 10. Lactide production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 99
Figure 11. Bio-MEG production capacities, 2018-2033. 101
Figure 12. Bio-MPG production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 102
Figure 13. Biobased naphtha production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 105
Figure 14. 1,3-Propanediol (1,3-PDO) production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 108
Figure 15. Sebacic acid production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 109
Figure 16. Coca-Cola PlantBottle®. 113
Figure 17. Interrelationship between conventional, bio-based and biodegradable plastics. 114
Figure 18. Bioplastics regional production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 120
Figure 19. Bio-based Polyethylene (Bio-PE), 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 121
Figure 20. Bio-based Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033 122
Figure 21. Bio-based polyamides (Bio-PA) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 123
Figure 22. Bio-based Polypropylene (Bio-PP) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 124
Figure 23. Bio-based Polytrimethylene terephthalate (Bio-PTT) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 125
Figure 24. Bio-based Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 126
Figure 25. Bio-based Polybutylene succinate (PBS) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 127
Figure 26. Bio-based Polylactic acid (PLA) production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 128
Figure 27. PHA production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 129
Figure 28. Starch blends production capacities, 1,000 tons, 2019-2033. 130
Figure 29. Polylactic acid (Bio-PLA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 136
Figure 30. Polyethylene terephthalate (Bio-PET) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons) 138
Figure 31. Polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 140
Figure 32. Production capacities of Polyethylene furanoate (PEF) to 2025. 143
Figure 33. Polyethylene furanoate (Bio-PEF) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 144
Figure 34. Polyamides (Bio-PA) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 147
Figure 35. Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (Bio-PBAT) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 150
Figure 36. Polybutylene succinate (PBS) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 152
Figure 37. Polyethylene (Bio-PE) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 154
Figure 38. Polypropylene (Bio-PP) production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 156
Figure 39. PHA family. 160
Figure 40. PHA production capacities 2019-2033 (1,000 tons). 175
Figure 41. TEM image of cellulose nanocrystals. 178
Figure 42. CNC preparation. 178
Figure 43. Extracting CNC from trees. 179
Figure 44. CNC slurry. 182
Figure 45. CNF gel. 185
Figure 46. Bacterial nanocellulose shapes 191
Figure 47. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 197
Figure 48. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. 199
Figure 49. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials. 200
Figure 50. Global production capacities of biobased and sustainable plastics 2020. 202
Figure 51. Global production capacities of biobased and sustainable plastics 2025. 203
Figure 52. Global production capacities for biobased and sustainable plastics by end user market 2019-2033, 1,000 tons. 207
Figure 53. PHA bioplastics products. 209
Figure 54. The global market for biobased and biodegradable plastics for flexible packaging 2019–2033 (‘000 tonnes). 212
Figure 55. Bioplastics for rigid packaging, 2019–2033 (‘000 tonnes). 214
Figure 56. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in consumer products 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons. 215
Figure 57. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in automotive 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons. 216
Figure 58. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in building and construction 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons. 217
Figure 59. AlgiKicks sneaker, made with the Algiknit biopolymer gel. 219
Figure 60. Reebok's [REE]GROW running shoes. 219
Figure 61. Camper Runner K21. 221
Figure 62. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in textiles 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons. 221
Figure 63. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in electronics 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons. 223
Figure 64. Biodegradable mulch films. 223
Figure 65. Global production capacities for biobased and biodegradable plastics in agriculture 2019-2033, in 1,000 tons. 224
Figure 66. Types of natural fibers. 228
Figure 67. Absolut natural based fiber bottle cap. 231
Figure 68. Adidas algae-ink tees. 231
Figure 69. Carlsberg natural fiber beer bottle. 231
Figure 70. Miratex watch bands. 231
Figure 71. Adidas Made with Nature Ultraboost 22. 231
Figure 72. PUMA RE:SUEDE sneaker 232
Figure 73. Cotton production volume 2018-2033 (Million MT). 237
Figure 74. Kapok production volume 2018-2033 (MT). 238
Figure 75. Luffa cylindrica fiber. 239
Figure 76. Jute production volume 2018-2033 (Million MT). 241
Figure 77. Hemp fiber production volume 2018-2033 ( MT). 243
Figure 78. Flax fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT). 244
Figure 79. Ramie fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT). 246
Figure 80. Kenaf fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT). 247
Figure 81. Sisal fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT). 249
Figure 82. Abaca fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT). 251
Figure 83. Coir fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MILLION MT). 252
Figure 84. Banana fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MT). 253
Figure 85. Pineapple fiber. 254
Figure 86. A bag made with pineapple biomaterial from the H&M Conscious Collection 2019. 255
Figure 87. Bamboo fiber production volume 2018-2033 (MILLION MT). 259
Figure 88. Typical structure of mycelium-based foam. 260
Figure 89. Commercial mycelium composite construction materials. 261
Figure 90. Frayme Mylo™️. 261
Figure 91. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 265
Figure 92. Conceptual landscape of next-gen leather materials. 269
Figure 93. Hemp fibers combined with PP in car door panel. 278
Figure 94. Car door produced from Hemp fiber. 279
Figure 95. Mercedes-Benz components containing natural fibers. 280
Figure 96. AlgiKicks sneaker, made with the Algiknit biopolymer gel. 287
Figure 97. Coir mats for erosion control. 288
Figure 98. Global fiber production in 2021, by fiber type, million MT and %. 291
Figure 99. Global fiber production (million MT) to 2020-2033. 292
Figure 100. Plant-based fiber production 2018-2033, by fiber type, MT. 293
Figure 101. Animal based fiber production 2018-2033, by fiber type, million MT. 294
Figure 102. High purity lignin. 296
Figure 103. Lignocellulose architecture. 296
Figure 104. Extraction processes to separate lignin from lignocellulosic biomass and corresponding technical lignins. 297
Figure 105. The lignocellulose biorefinery. 303
Figure 106. LignoBoost process. 308
Figure 107. LignoForce system for lignin recovery from black liquor. 309
Figure 108. Sequential liquid-lignin recovery and purification (SLPR) system. 309
Figure 109. A-Recovery+ chemical recovery concept. 311
Figure 110. Schematic of a biorefinery for production of carriers and chemicals. 312
Figure 111. Organosolv lignin. 315
Figure 112. Hydrolytic lignin powder. 315
Figure 113. Estimated consumption of lignin, 2019-2033 (000 MT). 319
Figure 114. Schematic of WISA plywood home. 322
Figure 115. Lignin based activated carbon. 324
Figure 116. Lignin/celluose precursor. 326
Figure 117. Pluumo. 341
Figure 118. ANDRITZ Lignin Recovery process. 351
Figure 119. Anpoly cellulose nanofiber hydrogel. 354
Figure 120. MEDICELLU™. 354
Figure 121. Asahi Kasei CNF fabric sheet. 364
Figure 122. Properties of Asahi Kasei cellulose nanofiber nonwoven fabric. 365
Figure 123. CNF nonwoven fabric. 366
Figure 124. Roof frame made of natural fiber. 374
Figure 125. Beyond Leather Materials product. 378
Figure 126. BIOLO e-commerce mailer bag made from PHA. 385
Figure 127. Reusable and recyclable foodservice cups, lids, and straws from Joinease Hong Kong Ltd., made with plant-based NuPlastiQ BioPolymer from BioLogiQ, Inc. 386
Figure 128. Fiber-based screw cap. 399
Figure 129. formicobio™ technology. 420
Figure 130. nanoforest-S. 422
Figure 131. nanoforest-PDP. 422
Figure 132. nanoforest-MB. 423
Figure 133. sunliquid® production process. 431
Figure 134. CuanSave film. 435
Figure 135. Celish. 435
Figure 136. Trunk lid incorporating CNF. 437
Figure 137. ELLEX products. 439
Figure 138. CNF-reinforced PP compounds. 439
Figure 139. Kirekira! toilet wipes. 440
Figure 140. Color CNF. 441
Figure 141. Rheocrysta spray. 447
Figure 142. DKS CNF products. 448
Figure 143. Domsjö process. 450
Figure 144. Mushroom leather. 460
Figure 145. CNF based on citrus peel. 462
Figure 146. Citrus cellulose nanofiber. 462
Figure 147. Filler Bank CNC products. 475
Figure 148. Fibers on kapok tree and after processing. 478
Figure 149. TMP-Bio Process. 480
Figure 150. Flow chart of the lignocellulose biorefinery pilot plant in Leuna. 481
Figure 151. Water-repellent cellulose. 483
Figure 152. Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF) composite with polyethylene (PE). 485
Figure 153. PHA production process. 487
Figure 154. CNF products from Furukawa Electric. 488
Figure 155. AVAPTM process. 498
Figure 156. GreenPower+™ process. 499
Figure 157. Cutlery samples (spoon, knife, fork) made of nano cellulose and biodegradable plastic composite materials. 502
Figure 158. Non-aqueous CNF dispersion "Senaf" (Photo shows 5% of plasticizer). 505
Figure 159. CNF gel. 511
Figure 160. Block nanocellulose material. 512
Figure 161. CNF products developed by Hokuetsu. 512
Figure 162. Marine leather products. 516
Figure 163. Inner Mettle Milk products. 520
Figure 164. Kami Shoji CNF products. 533
Figure 165. Dual Graft System. 535
Figure 166. Engine cover utilizing Kao CNF composite resins. 536
Figure 167. Acrylic resin blended with modified CNF (fluid) and its molded product (transparent film), and image obtained with AFM (CNF 10wt% blended). 537
Figure 168. Kel Labs yarn. 538
Figure 169. 0.3% aqueous dispersion of sulfated esterified CNF and dried transparent film (front side). 542
Figure 170. BioFlex process. 554
Figure 171. Nike Algae Ink graphic tee. 556
Figure 172. LX Process. 560
Figure 173. Made of Air's HexChar panels. 562
Figure 174. TransLeather. 563
Figure 175. Chitin nanofiber product. 568
Figure 176. Marusumi Paper cellulose nanofiber products. 570
Figure 177. FibriMa cellulose nanofiber powder. 571
Figure 178. METNIN™ Lignin refining technology. 575
Figure 179. IPA synthesis method. 578
Figure 180. MOGU-Wave panels. 582
Figure 181. CNF slurries. 583
Figure 182. Range of CNF products. 583
Figure 183. Reishi. 587
Figure 184. Compostable water pod. 606
Figure 185. Leather made from leaves. 607
Figure 186. Nike shoe with beLEAF™. 607
Figure 187. CNF clear sheets. 617
Figure 188. Oji Holdings CNF polycarbonate product. 619
Figure 189. Enfinity cellulosic ethanol technology process. 632
Figure 190. Fabric consisting of 70 per cent wool and 30 per cent Qmilk. 637
Figure 191. XCNF. 645
Figure 192: Plantrose process. 647
Figure 193. LOVR hemp leather. 651
Figure 194. CNF insulation flat plates. 653
Figure 195. Hansa lignin. 660
Figure 196. Manufacturing process for STARCEL. 664
Figure 197. Manufacturing process for STARCEL. 668
Figure 198. 3D printed cellulose shoe. 677
Figure 199. Lyocell process. 680
Figure 200. North Face Spiber Moon Parka. 685
Figure 201. PANGAIA LAB NXT GEN Hoodie. 686
Figure 202. Spider silk production. 687
Figure 203. Stora Enso lignin battery materials. 692
Figure 204. 2 wt.％ CNF suspension. 693
Figure 205. BiNFi-s Dry Powder. 694
Figure 206. BiNFi-s Dry Powder and Propylene (PP) Complex Pellet. 694
Figure 207. Silk nanofiber (right) and cocoon of raw material. 695
Figure 208. Sulapac cosmetics containers. 697
Figure 209. Sulzer equipment for PLA polymerization processing. 698
Figure 210. Teijin bioplastic film for door handles. 708
Figure 211. Corbion FDCA production process. 716
Figure 212. Comparison of weight reduction effect using CNF. 717
Figure 213. CNF resin products. 721
Figure 214. UPM biorefinery process. 723
Figure 215. Vegea production process. 728
Figure 216. The Proesa® Process. 729
Figure 217. Goldilocks process and applications. 731
Figure 218. Visolis’ Hybrid Bio-Thermocatalytic Process. 735
Figure 219. HefCel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test. 738
Figure 220. Worn Again products. 742
Figure 221. Zelfo Technology GmbH CNF production process. 747
Figure 222. Diesel and gasoline alternatives and blends. 754
Figure 223. Schematic of a biorefinery for production of carriers and chemicals. 765
Figure 224. Hydrolytic lignin powder. 768
Figure 225. Regional production of biodiesel (billion litres). 774
Figure 226. Flow chart for biodiesel production. 779
Figure 227. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2033 (M litres/year). 787
Figure 228. Global renewable diesel consumption, to 2033 (M litres/year). 790
Figure 229. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2033 (Million litres/year). 796
Figure 230. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021. 798
Figure 231. Overview of biogas utilization. 799
Figure 232. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 800
Figure 233. Bio-based naphtha production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 806
Figure 234. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks. 808
Figure 235. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading. 809
Figure 236. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation. 810
Figure 237. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process. 811
Figure 238. Ethanol consumption 2010-2033 (million litres). 818
Figure 239. Properties of petrol and biobutanol. 820
Figure 240. Biobutanol production route. 820
Figure 241. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline 822
Figure 242. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires. 824
Figure 243. Used tires conversion process. 825
Figure 244. Process steps in the production of electrofuels. 826
Figure 245. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics. 827
Figure 246. Production process for green hydrogen. 830
Figure 247. E-liquids production routes. 831
Figure 248. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products. 832
Figure 249. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production. 832
Figure 250. Levelized cost and fuel-switching CO2 prices of e-fuels. 836
Figure 251. Cost breakdown for e-fuels. 838
Figure 252. Pathways for algal biomass conversion to biofuels. 840
Figure 253. Algal biomass conversion process for biofuel production. 841
Figure 254. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production. 842
Figure 255. Green ammonia production and use. 844
Figure 256. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction. 846
Figure 257. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation. 846
Figure 258. Estimated production cost of green ammonia. 852
Figure 259. Projected annual ammonia production, million tons. 853
Figure 260. ANDRITZ Lignin Recovery process. 860
Figure 261. FBPO process 872
Figure 262. Direct Air Capture Process. 877
Figure 263. CRI process. 879
Figure 264. Colyser process. 885
Figure 265. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic. 889
Figure 266. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer. 890
Figure 267. Domsjö process. 892
Figure 268. FuelPositive system. 901
Figure 269. INERATEC unit. 915
Figure 270. Infinitree swing method. 916
Figure 271. Enfinity cellulosic ethanol technology process. 942
Figure 272: Plantrose process. 947
Figure 273. O12 Reactor. 964
Figure 274. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials. 964
Figure 275. CO2 made car part. 964
Figure 276. The Velocys process. 967
Figure 277. The Proesa® Process. 969
Figure 278. Goldilocks process and applications. 971
Figure 279. Paints and coatings industry by market segmentation 2019-2020. 977
Figure 280. PHA family. 996
Figure 281: Schematic diagram of partial molecular structure of cellulose chain with numbering for carbon atoms and n= number of cellobiose repeating unit. 1001
Figure 282: Scale of cellulose materials. 1002
Figure 283. Nanocellulose preparation methods and resulting materials. 1003
Figure 284: Relationship between different kinds of nanocelluloses. 1005
Figure 285. Hefcel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test. 1012
Figure 286: CNC slurry. 1013
Figure 287. High purity lignin. 1016
Figure 288. BLOOM masterbatch from Algix. 1021
Figure 289. Global market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033 (billions USD). 1023
Figure 290. Market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033 (billions USD), conservative estimate. 1024
Figure 291. Market revenues for biobased paints and coatings, 2018-2033 (billions USD), high 1026
Figure 292. Dulux Better Living Air Clean Biobased. 1028
Figure 293: NCCTM Process. 1050
Figure 294: CNC produced at Tech Futures’ pilot plant; cloudy suspension (1 wt.%), gel-like (10 wt.%), flake-like crystals, and very fine powder. Product advantages include: 1050
Figure 295. Cellugy materials. 1052
Figure 296. EcoLine® 3690 (left) vs Solvent-Based Competitor Coating (right). 1056
Figure 297. Rheocrysta spray. 1062
Figure 298. DKS CNF products. 1063
Figure 299. Domsjö process. 1064
Figure 300. CNF gel. 1080
Figure 301. Block nanocellulose material. 1080
Figure 302. CNF products developed by Hokuetsu. 1081
Figure 303. BioFlex process. 1094
Figure 304. Marusumi Paper cellulose nanofiber products. 1097
Figure 305: Fluorene cellulose ® powder. 1116
Figure 306. XCNF. 1121
Figure 307. Spider silk production. 1130
Figure 308. CNF dispersion and powder from Starlite. 1132
Figure 309. 2 wt.％ CNF suspension. 1136
Figure 310. BiNFi-s Dry Powder. 1136
Figure 311. BiNFi-s Dry Powder and Propylene (PP) Complex Pellet. 1137
Figure 312. Silk nanofiber (right) and cocoon of raw material. 1137
Figure 313. HefCel-coated wood (left) and untreated wood (right) after 30 seconds flame test. 1142
Figure 314. Bio-based barrier bags prepared from Tempo-CNF coated bio-HDPE film. 1143
Figure 315. Bioalkyd products. 1147
Figure 316. Carbon emissions by sector. 1148
Figure 317. Overview of CCUS market 1150
Figure 318. Pathways for CO2 use. 1151
Figure 319. Regional capacity share 2022-2030. 1153
Figure 320. Global investment in carbon capture 2010-2022, millions USD. 1159
Figure 321. Carbon Capture, Utilization, & Storage (CCUS) Market Map. 1164
Figure 322. CCS deployment projects, historical and to 2035. 1165
Figure 323. Existing and planned CCS projects. 1174
Figure 324. CCUS Value Chain. 1174
Figure 325. Schematic of CCUS process. 1176
Figure 326. Pathways for CO2 utilization and removal. 1177
Figure 327. A pre-combustion capture system. 1183
Figure 328. Carbon dioxide utilization and removal cycle. 1187
Figure 329. Various pathways for CO2 utilization. 1188
Figure 330. Example of underground carbon dioxide storage. 1189
Figure 331. Transport of CCS technologies. 1190
Figure 332. Railroad car for liquid CO₂ transport 1193
Figure 333. Estimated costs of capture of one metric ton of carbon dioxide (Co2) by sector. 1195
Figure 334. Cost of CO2 transported at different flowrates 1196
Figure 335. Cost estimates for long-distance CO2 transport. 1197
Figure 336. CO2 capture and separation technology. 1198
Figure 337. Global capacity of point-source carbon capture and storage facilities. 1201
Figure 338. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2021. 1202
Figure 339. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 source, 2030. 1203
Figure 340. Global carbon capture capacity by CO2 endpoint, 2021 and 2030. 1203
Figure 341. Post-combustion carbon capture process. 1206
Figure 342. Postcombustion CO2 Capture in a Coal-Fired Power Plant. 1207
Figure 343. Oxy-combustion carbon capture process. 1208
Figure 344. Liquid or supercritical CO2 carbon capture process. 1209
Figure 345. Pre-combustion carbon capture process. 1210
Figure 346. Amine-based absorption technology. 1214
Figure 347. Pressure swing absorption technology. 1218
Figure 348. Membrane separation technology. 1220
Figure 349. Liquid or supercritical CO2 (cryogenic) distillation. 1221
Figure 350. Process schematic of chemical looping. 1222
Figure 351. Calix advanced calcination reactor. 1223
Figure 352. Fuel Cell CO2 Capture diagram. 1224
Figure 353. Microalgal carbon capture. 1225
Figure 354. Cost of carbon capture. 1230
Figure 355. CO2 capture capacity to 2030, MtCO2. 1231
Figure 356. Capacity of large-scale CO2 capture projects, current and planned vs. the Net Zero Scenario, 2020-2030. 1232
Figure 357. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) process. 1234
Figure 358. CO2 captured from air using liquid and solid sorbent DAC plants, storage, and reuse. 1237
Figure 359. Global CO2 capture from biomass and DAC in the Net Zero Scenario. 1238
Figure 360. DAC technologies. 1240
Figure 361. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system. 1241
Figure 362. Climeworks’ first commercial direct air capture (DAC) plant, based in Hinwil, Switzerland. 1242
Figure 363. Flow diagram for solid sorbent DAC. 1243
Figure 364. Direct air capture based on high temperature liquid sorbent by Carbon Engineering. 1244
Figure 365. Global capacity of direct air capture facilities. 1249
Figure 366. Global map of DAC and CCS plants. 1254
Figure 367. Schematic of costs of DAC technologies. 1257
Figure 368. DAC cost breakdown and comparison. 1258
Figure 369. Operating costs of generic liquid and solid-based DAC systems. 1260
Figure 370. Schematic of biochar production. 1265
Figure 371. CO2 non-conversion and conversion technology, advantages and disadvantages. 1268
Figure 372. Applications for CO2. 1271
Figure 373. Cost to capture one metric ton of carbon, by sector. 1271
Figure 374. Life cycle of CO2-derived products and services. 1274
Figure 375. Co2 utilization pathways and products. 1277
Figure 376. Plasma technology configurations and their advantages and disadvantages for CO2 conversion. 1281
Figure 377. LanzaTech gas-fermentation process. 1286
Figure 378. Schematic of biological CO2 conversion into e-fuels. 1287
Figure 379. Econic catalyst systems. 1290
Figure 380. Mineral carbonation processes. 1292
Figure 381. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates. 1295
Figure 382. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel. 1296
Figure 383. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol. 1297
Figure 384. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c 1299
Figure 385. Audi synthetic fuels. 1301
Figure 386. Conversion of CO2 into chemicals and fuels via different pathways. 1304
Figure 387. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived polymeric materials 1306
Figure 388. Conversion pathway for CO2-derived building materials. 1309
Figure 389. Schematic of CCUS in cement sector. 1310
Figure 390. Carbon8 Systems’ ACT process. 1313
Figure 391. CO2 utilization in the Carbon Cure process. 1314
Figure 392. Algal cultivation in the desert. 1319
Figure 393. Example pathways for products from cyanobacteria. 1320
Figure 394. Typical Flow Diagram for CO2 EOR. 1324
Figure 395. Large CO2-EOR projects in different project stages by industry. 1326
Figure 396. Carbon mineralization pathways. 1330
Figure 397. CO2 Storage Overview - Site Options 1333
Figure 398. CO2 injection into a saline formation while producing brine for beneficial use. 1337
Figure 399. Subsurface storage cost estimation. 1341
Figure 400. Air Products production process. 1346
Figure 401. Aker carbon capture system. 1348
Figure 402. ALGIECEL PhotoBioReactor. 1351
Figure 403. Schematic of carbon capture solar project. 1355
Figure 404. Aspiring Materials method. 1356
Figure 405. Aymium’s Biocarbon production. 1359
Figure 406. Carbonminer technology. 1374
Figure 407. Carbon Blade system. 1378
Figure 408. CarbonCure Technology. 1384
Figure 409. Direct Air Capture Process. 1386
Figure 410. CRI process. 1389
Figure 411. PCCSD Project in China. 1404
Figure 412. Orca facility. 1405
Figure 413. Process flow scheme of Compact Carbon Capture Plant. 1409
Figure 414. Colyser process. 1410
Figure 415. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic. 1416
Figure 416. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer. 1417
Figure 417. Fuel Cell Carbon Capture. 1434
Figure 418. Topsoe's SynCORTM autothermal reforming technology. 1440
Figure 419. Carbon Capture balloon. 1443
Figure 420. Holy Grail DAC system. 1444
Figure 421. INERATEC unit. 1449
Figure 422. Infinitree swing method. 1450
Figure 423. Made of Air's HexChar panels. 1463
Figure 424. Mosaic Materials MOFs. 1471
Figure 425. Neustark modular plant. 1474
Figure 426. OCOchem’s Carbon Flux Electrolyzer. 1480
Figure 427. ZerCaL™ process. 1482
Figure 428. CCS project at Arthit offshore gas field. 1492
Figure 429. RepAir technology. 1495
Figure 430. Soletair Power unit. 1505
Figure 431. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production. 1511
Figure 432. CALF-20 has been integrated into a rotating CO2 capture machine (left), which operates inside a CO2 plant module (right). 1514
Figure 433. O12 Reactor. 1521
Figure 434. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials. 1521
Figure 435. CO2 made car part. 1521
Figure 436. Global production, use, and fate of polymer resins, synthetic fibers, and additives. 1529
Figure 437. Current management systems for waste plastics. 1531
Figure 438. Global polymer demand 2022-2040, segmented by technology, million metric tons. 1544
Figure 439. Global demand by recycling process, 2020-2035, million metric tons. 1545
Figure 440. Market map for advanced recycling. 1547
Figure 441. Value chain for advanced recycling market. 1548
Figure 442. Schematic layout of a pyrolysis plant. 1552
Figure 443. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline 1557
Figure 444. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires. 1561
Figure 445. Used tires conversion process. 1562
Figure 446. SWOT analysis-pyrolysis for advanced recycling. 1563
Figure 447. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021. 1566
Figure 448. Overview of biogas utilization. 1568
Figure 449. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 1569
Figure 450. SWOT analysis-gasification for advanced recycling. 1571
Figure 451. SWOT analysis-dissoluton for advanced recycling. 1574
Figure 452. Products obtained through the different solvolysis pathways of PET, PU, and PA. 1576
Figure 453. SWOT analysis-Hydrolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 1579
Figure 454. SWOT analysis-Enzymolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 1581
Figure 455. SWOT analysis-Methanolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 1583
Figure 456. SWOT analysis-Glycolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 1586
Figure 457. SWOT analysis-Aminolysis for advanced chemical recycling. 1587
Figure 458. NewCycling process. 1604
Figure 459. ChemCyclingTM prototypes. 1608
Figure 460. ChemCycling circle by BASF. 1608
Figure 461. Recycled carbon fibers obtained through the R3FIBER process. 1610
Figure 462. Cassandra Oil process. 1621
Figure 463. CuRe Technology process. 1629
Figure 464. MoReTec. 1663
Figure 465. Chemical decomposition process of polyurethane foam. 1665
Figure 466. Schematic Process of Plastic Energy’s TAC Chemical Recycling. 1678
Figure 467. Easy-tear film material from recycled material. 1693
Figure 468. Polyester fabric made from recycled monomers. 1697
Figure 469. A sheet of acrylic resin made from conventional, fossil resource-derived MMA monomer (left) and a sheet of acrylic resin made from chemically recycled MMA monomer (right). 1707
Figure 470. Teijin Frontier Co., Ltd. Depolymerisation process. 1711
Figure 471. The Velocys process. 1718
Figure 472. The Proesa® Process. 1719
Figure 473. Worn Again products. 1720

The Global Market for Renewable Materials (Bio-based, CO2-based and Recycled)

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