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The Global Critical Materials Recovery Market 2027-2047

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  • Published: June 2026
  • Pages: 344
  • Tables: 118
  • Figures: 37

 

The critical raw materials recovery market enters 2026 defined less by price than by policy and consolidation. The decisive shift of the period was the conversion of "supply-chain security" from rhetoric into industrial policy. After China demonstrated its leverage through 2024–2025 export controls on gallium, germanium, graphite and rare-earth magnets — disruptions severe enough to halt at least one automaker's production line — Western governments responded with hard instruments. The United States launched Project Vault, a $10 billion-backed strategic minerals reserve covering all 60 USGS-listed critical minerals, and convened a 54-nation Critical Minerals Ministerial that produced FORGE, a friend-shoring framework proposing enforceable reference-price floors to counter Chinese below-market competition. The European Union advanced its Critical Raw Materials Act into implementation, with the FutuRaM project quantifying an "urban mine" capable of supplying up to 56% of the bloc's primary-material needs by 2050. Recovery is now framed as strategic infrastructure for defense, AI and robotics supply chains — not an ESG add-on.

Against this supportive policy backdrop, the commercial reality was brutal. Battery-metal prices bottomed in 2025 — battery-grade lithium carbonate fell to roughly $12/kg before rebounding to around $24/kg by mid-2026 — and the trough triggered a wave of insolvencies that reshaped the competitive field. Ascend Elements filed for Chapter 11, Li-Cycle was acquired by Glencore out of bankruptcy, Lithion Technologies entered creditor protection, and European cell and refining ventures Northvolt, Morrow Batteries and Viridian Lithium failed. The survivors share clear traits: integrated offtake, captive feedstock, government backing, or distinctive low-cost technology.

Activity has consequently bifurcated. Battery recycling remains dominated by China, where CATL's Brunp processed over 200,000 tonnes in 2025 and targets one million tonnes annually by 2030. In the West, momentum has shifted toward rare-earth and magnet recovery — Cyclic Materials, HyProMag, Carester/Caremag and Paladin all advanced funded, friend-shored projects — alongside rare-earth-free magnet substitution led by Niron Magnetics. Meanwhile, the EV end-of-life wave that builds sharply after 2030 guarantees the largest secondary feedstock stream in history. The market's trajectory therefore hinges on a single dynamic: whether stockpile demand and price floors can stabilise recovered-material economics enough to outlast spot-price volatility. The forecasts in this report assume they increasingly can, lifting recovered-material value toward roughly $250 billion by 2047.

The Global Critical Materials Recovery Market 2027–2047 is a comprehensive, two-decade analysis of how the world will recover critical and strategic raw materials from secondary sources — end-of-life products, manufacturing scrap and industrial waste — as supply-chain security becomes the defining force in the global minerals economy. The report opens against a transformed backdrop. Following China's 2024–2025 export controls on gallium, germanium, graphite and rare-earth magnets, recovery has shifted from an environmental activity to a strategic imperative. New instruments — the United States' Project Vault strategic reserve, the 54-nation FORGE friend-shoring framework, the EU Critical Raw Materials Act, and a wave of government-backed processing finance — are reshaping the economics of recycling. At the same time, a sharp 2025 battery-metal price trough triggered a wave of recycler insolvencies, accelerating consolidation toward integrated, policy-backed players.

This report quantifies the opportunity through detailed 2027–2047 forecasts by material, recovery source and region, and evaluates the technologies, business models and companies positioned to capture it across rare earths and magnets, lithium-ion batteries, semiconductors and platinum group metals.

Report content includes:

  • 20-year market forecasts (2027–2047) by material, recovery source and region — in both tonnes and value (USD)
  • Supply-chain-security analysis: Project Vault, FORGE, the 54-nation framework, export controls and price-floor mechanisms
  • Critical material extraction technologies — hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, biometallurgy, ionic liquids/deep eutectic solvents, electrochemical and supercritical methods — with TRL and value-proposition assessments
  • Critical material recovery technologies — solvent extraction, ion exchange, precipitation, biosorption, electrowinning and direct recovery
  • Rare-earth element and permanent-magnet recovery, including long-loop and short-loop recycling and rare-earth-free magnet substitution
  • Li-ion battery recycling: chemistries, black mass, economics, EV end-of-life scrappage forecasts, capacity, regulations and the 2025–2026 industry shakeout
  • Critical semiconductor recovery from e-waste and photovoltaics
  • Platinum group metal recovery from autocatalysts, fuel cells and electrolysers
  • Pricing trends, market drivers, restraints, and technology-readiness evaluations
  • Profiles of 164 companies across the recovery value chain. Companies profiled include Accurec Recycling GmbH, ACE Green Recycling, Altilium, American Battery Technology Company (ABTC), Anhua Taisen, Aqua Metals, Ascend Elements, Attero, BacTech Environmental, Ballard Power Systems, BANIQL, BASF, Battery Pollution Technologies, Batx Energies, Berkeley Energia, BHP, BMW, Botree Cycling, Brazilian Nickel, Carester, Ceibo, Cheetah Resources, CATL, Cirba Solutions, Circunomics, Circular Industries, Cyclic Materials, Cylib, DEScycle, Dowa Eco-System, Dow Chemicals, Dundee Sustainable Technologies, DuPont, EcoBat, eCobalt Solutions, Econili Battery, EcoPro, Electra Battery Materials, Electramet, Elmery, Elemental Group, Element Zero, Emulsion Flow Technologies, Enim, EnviroMetal Technologies, Eramet, ExPost Technology, Farasis Energy, First Solar, Fortum, 4R Energy, Freeport-McMoRan, Fluor, FLSmidth, Ganfeng Lithium, Ganzhou Cyclewell, GEM, GLC Recycle, Glencore, Gotion, GREEN14, Green Li-ion, Green Mineral, GS Group, Guangdong Guanghua Sci-Tech, Huayou Cobalt, Henkel, Heraeus, HydroVolt, HyProMag, InoBat, Inmetco, Jiecheng New Energy, JPM Silicon, JX Nippon Metal Mining, Keyking Recycling, Korea Zinc, Kyoei Seiko, Igneo, IXOM, Jälle Technologies, Jervois Global, Jetti Resources, Kemira Oyj, Librec, Lithium Australia, LG Chem, Li Industries, LICO Materials, Lithion Technologies, Litus Inc., Lohum, MagREEsource, Mecaware, Metastable Materials, Metso, Minerva Lithium, MIRARCO, Mitsubishi Materials, Neometals, NEU Battery Materials, Nickelhütte Aue, NioCorp Developments, Niron Magnetics, Nordic Salt Cycle, Nouryon and more......

 

The report serves recyclers, miners, OEMs, battery and magnet manufacturers, investors and policymakers seeking to understand where secondary-supply value will be created over the next two decades — and which technologies, regions and companies will lead.

 

The Global Critical Materials Recovery Market 2027-2047
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1             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY            20

  • 1.1        Definition and Importance of Critical Raw Materials           20
  • 1.2        E-Waste as a Source of Critical Raw Materials        22
  • 1.3        Electrification, Renewable and Clean Technologies            23
  • 1.4        Regulatory Landscape             24
    • 1.4.1    European Union           24
    • 1.4.2    United States 25
    • 1.4.3    China  25
    • 1.4.4    Japan  25
    • 1.4.5    Australia           25
    • 1.4.6    Canada             25
    • 1.4.7    India    25
    • 1.4.8    South Korea    26
    • 1.4.9    Brazil   26
    • 1.4.10 Russia 26
    • 1.4.11 Global Initiatives          26
  • 1.5        Key Market Drivers and Restraints   28
  • 1.6        The Global Critical Raw Materials Market in 2026 29
  • 1.7        Critical Material Extraction Technology        30
    • 1.7.1    Recovery of critical materials from secondary sources (e.g., end-of-life products, industrial waste) 34
    • 1.7.2    Critical rare-earth element recovery from secondary sources      35
    • 1.7.3    Li-ion battery technology metal recovery    36
    • 1.7.4    Critical semiconductor materials recovery                37
    • 1.7.5    Critical platinum group metal recovery        39
  • 1.8        Critical Raw Materials Value Chain 41
  • 1.9        The Economic Case for Critical Raw Materials Recovery  41
  • 1.10     Price Trends for Key Recovered Materials (2020-2026)      42
  • 1.11     Global market forecasts         43
    • 1.11.1 By Material Type (2025-2047)             43
    • 1.11.2 By Recovery Source (2025-2047)     44
    • 1.11.3 By Region (2025-2047)            45
  • 1.12     The 2025–2026 recycler shakeout    46

 

2             INTRODUCTION          47

  • 2.1        Critical Raw Materials              47
  • 2.2        Global situation in supply and trade               47
    • 2.2.1    From diversification rhetoric to industrial-policy execution            48
    • 2.2.2    Project Vault: a demand backstop that resets recovery economics          48
    • 2.2.3    The 54-nation framework: friend-shoring and enforced price floors         49
    • 2.2.4    Substitution as the second hedge: rare-earth-free magnets          49
    • 2.2.5    Recovery reframed: strategic infrastructure, not ESG compliance             49
  • 2.3        Circular economy       50
    • 2.3.1    Circular use of critical raw materials             51
  • 2.4        Critical and strategic raw materials used in the energy transition              54
    • 2.4.1    Greening critical metals         55
  • 2.5        Metals and minerals processed and extracted        56
    • 2.5.1    Copper               56
      • 2.5.1.1 Global copper demand and trends 56
      • 2.5.1.2 Markets and applications      57
      • 2.5.1.3 Copper extraction and recovery        58
    • 2.5.2    Nickel  59
      • 2.5.2.1 Global nickel demand and trends    59
      • 2.5.2.2 Markets and applications      60
      • 2.5.2.3 Nickel extraction and recovery           61
    • 2.5.3    Cobalt 62
      • 2.5.3.1 Global cobalt demand and trends   62
      • 2.5.3.2 Markets and applications      62
      • 2.5.3.3 Cobalt extraction and recovery          63
    • 2.5.4    Rare Earth Elements (REE)   64
      • 2.5.4.1 Global Rare Earth Elements demand and trends   64
      • 2.5.4.2 Markets and applications      64
      • 2.5.4.3 Rare Earth Elements extraction and recovery           65
      • 2.5.4.4 Recovery of REEs from secondary resources            66
    • 2.5.5    Lithium              66
      • 2.5.5.1 Global lithium demand and trends  66
      • 2.5.5.2 Markets and applications      67
      • 2.5.5.3 Lithium extraction and recovery        68
    • 2.5.6    Gold     69
      • 2.5.6.1 Global gold demand and trends        69
      • 2.5.6.2 Markets and applications      69
      • 2.5.6.3 Gold extraction and recovery               70
    • 2.5.7    Uranium            71
      • 2.5.7.1 Global uranium demand and trends               71
      • 2.5.7.2 Markets and applications      71
      • 2.5.7.3 Uranium extraction and recovery      72
    • 2.5.8    Zinc      72
      • 2.5.8.1 Global Zinc demand and trends        72
      • 2.5.8.2 Markets and applications      73
      • 2.5.8.3 Zinc extraction and recovery                73
    • 2.5.9    Manganese     74
      • 2.5.9.1 Global manganese demand and trends       74
      • 2.5.9.2 Markets and applications      74
      • 2.5.9.3 Manganese extraction and recovery               75
    • 2.5.10 Tantalum          76
      • 2.5.10.1            Global tantalum demand and trends             76
      • 2.5.10.2            Markets and applications      76
      • 2.5.10.3            Tantalum extraction and recovery    77
    • 2.5.11 Niobium            78
      • 2.5.11.1            Global niobium demand and trends               78
      • 2.5.11.2            Markets and applications      78
      • 2.5.11.3            Niobium extraction and recovery      79
    • 2.5.12 Indium                80
      • 2.5.12.1            Global indium demand and trends  80
      • 2.5.12.2            Markets and applications      80
      • 2.5.12.3            Indium extraction and recovery          81
    • 2.5.13 Gallium              81
      • 2.5.13.1            Global gallium demand and trends 81
      • 2.5.13.2            Markets and applications      82
      • 2.5.13.3            Gallium extraction and recovery        82
    • 2.5.14 Germanium    83
      • 2.5.14.1            Global germanium demand and trends        83
      • 2.5.14.2            Markets and applications      83
      • 2.5.14.3            Germanium extraction and recovery              84
    • 2.5.15 Antimony          85
      • 2.5.15.1            Global antimony demand and trends            85
      • 2.5.15.2            Markets and applications      85
      • 2.5.15.3            Antimony extraction and recovery    86
    • 2.5.16 Scandium        86
      • 2.5.16.1            Global scandium demand and trends           86
      • 2.5.16.2            Markets and applications      86
      • 2.5.16.3            Scandium extraction and recovery  87
    • 2.5.17 Graphite            88
      • 2.5.17.1            Global graphite demand and trends               88
      • 2.5.17.2            Markets and applications      88
      • 2.5.17.3            Graphite extraction and recovery      89
  • 2.6        Recovery sources       90
    • 2.6.1    Primary sources           92
    • 2.6.2    Secondary sources    93
      • 2.6.2.1 Extraction         96
        • 2.6.2.1.1           Hydrometallurgical extraction            97
          • 2.6.2.1.1.1      Overview           97
          • 2.6.2.1.1.2      Lixiviants          98
          • 2.6.2.1.1.3      SWOT analysis              99
        • 2.6.2.1.2           Pyrometallurgical extraction                100
          • 2.6.2.1.2.1      Overview           100
          • 2.6.2.1.2.2      SWOT analysis              101
        • 2.6.2.1.3           Biometallurgy 102
          • 2.6.2.1.3.1      Overview           102
          • 2.6.2.1.3.2      SWOT analysis              103
        • 2.6.2.1.4           Ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents     104
          • 2.6.2.1.4.1      Overview           104
          • 2.6.2.1.4.2      SWOT analysis              106
        • 2.6.2.1.5           Electroleaching extraction    107
          • 2.6.2.1.5.1      Overview           107
          • 2.6.2.1.5.2      SWOT analysis              108
        • 2.6.2.1.6           Supercritical fluid extraction               109
          • 2.6.2.1.6.1      Overview           109
          • 2.6.2.1.6.2      SWOT analysis              110
      • 2.6.2.2 Recovery           111
        • 2.6.2.2.1           Solvent extraction       111
          • 2.6.2.2.1.1      Overview           111
          • 2.6.2.2.1.2      Rare-Earth Element Recovery             112
          • 2.6.2.2.1.3      SWOT analysis 113
        • 2.6.2.2.2           Ion exchange recovery             114
          • 2.6.2.2.2.1      Overview           114
          • 2.6.2.2.2.2      SWOT analysis              116
        • 2.6.2.2.3           Ionic liquid (IL) and deep eutectic solvent (DES) recovery                117
          • 2.6.2.2.3.1      Overview           117
          • 2.6.2.2.3.2      SWOT analysis              119
        • 2.6.2.2.4           Precipitation   120
          • 2.6.2.2.4.1      Overview           120
          • 2.6.2.2.4.2      Coagulation and flocculation              121
          • 2.6.2.2.4.3      SWOT analysis              123
        • 2.6.2.2.5           Biosorption     124
          • 2.6.2.2.5.1      Overview           124
          • 2.6.2.2.5.2      SWOT analysis              125
        • 2.6.2.2.6           Electrowinning              127
          • 2.6.2.2.6.1      Overview           127
          • 2.6.2.2.6.2      SWOT analysis              128
        • 2.6.2.2.7           Direct materials recovery       129
          • 2.6.2.2.7.1      Overview           129
          • 2.6.2.2.7.2      Rare-earth Oxide (REO) Processing Using Molten Salt Electrolysis            130
          • 2.6.2.2.7.3      Rare-earth Magnet Recycling by Hydrogen Decrepitation                130
          • 2.6.2.2.7.4      Direct Recycling of Li-ion Battery Cathodes by Sintering  131
          • 2.6.2.2.7.5      SWOT analysis              131

 

3             CRITICAL RAW MATERIALS RECOVERY IN SEMICONDUCTORS  135

  • 3.1        Critical semiconductor materials    135
  • 3.2        Electronic waste (e-waste)   138
    • 3.2.1    Types of Critical Raw Materials found in E-Waste  138
    • 3.2.2    AI-enabled recovery: the DOE–Amazon collaboration       141
  • 3.3        Photovoltaic and solar technologies              142
    • 3.3.1    Common types of PV panels and their critical semiconductor components      142
    • 3.3.2    Silicon Recovery Technology for Crystalline-Si PVs              142
    • 3.3.3    Tellurium Recovery from CdTe Thin-Film Photovoltaics     143
    • 3.3.4    Solar Panel Manufacturers and Recovery Rates     143
  • 3.4        Concentration and value of Critical Raw Materials in E-Waste     144
  • 3.5        Applications and Importance of Key Critical Raw Materials           144
  • 3.6        Waste Recycling and Recovery Processes  145
  • 3.7        Collection and Sorting Infrastructure             146
  • 3.8        Pre-Processing Technologies              147
  • 3.9        Metal Recovery Technologies              148
    • 3.9.1    Pyrometallurgy              148
    • 3.9.2    Hydrometallurgy          148
    • 3.9.3    Biometallurgy 149
    • 3.9.4    Supercritical Fluid Extraction              149
    • 3.9.5    Electrokinetic Separation      150
    • 3.9.6    Mechanochemical Processing           151
  • 3.10     Global market 2025-2047     151
    • 3.10.1 Ktonnes             152
    • 3.10.2 Revenues          152
    • 3.10.3 Regional            152

 

4             CRITICAL RAW MATERIALS RECOVERY IN LI-ION BATTERIES        154

  • 4.1        Critical Li-ion Battery Metals               154
  • 4.2        Critical Li-ion Battery Technology Metal Recovery 155
  • 4.3        Lithium-Ion Battery recycling value chain   156
  • 4.4        Black mass powder   159
  • 4.5        Recycling different cathode chemistries     160
  • 4.6        Preparation     160
  • 4.7        Pre-Treatment                160
    • 4.7.1    Discharging    160
    • 4.7.2    Mechanical Pre-Treatment    161
    • 4.7.3    Thermal Pre-Treatment            164
  • 4.8        Comparison of recycling techniques              164
  • 4.9        Hydrometallurgy          165
    • 4.9.1    Method overview         165
      • 4.9.1.1 Solvent extraction       167
    • 4.9.2    SWOT analysis              167
  • 4.10     Pyrometallurgy              168
    • 4.10.1 Method overview         168
    • 4.10.2 SWOT analysis              169
  • 4.11     Direct recycling             170
    • 4.11.1 Method overview         170
      • 4.11.1.1            Electrolyte separation              171
      • 4.11.1.2            Separating cathode and anode materials   171
      • 4.11.1.3            Binder removal             171
      • 4.11.1.4            Relithiation      172
      • 4.11.1.5            Cathode recovery and rejuvenation                172
      • 4.11.1.6            Hydrometallurgical-direct hybrid recycling                173
    • 4.11.2 SWOT analysis              173
  • 4.12     Other methods             174
    • 4.12.1 Mechanochemical Pretreatment      174
    • 4.12.2 Electrochemical Method        174
    • 4.12.3 Ionic Liquids   175
  • 4.13     Recycling of Specific Components 175
    • 4.13.1 Anode (Graphite)         175
    • 4.13.2 Cathode            175
    • 4.13.3 Electrolyte        176
  • 4.14     Recycling of Beyond Li-ion Batteries               176
    • 4.14.1 Conventional vs Emerging Processes            176
    • 4.14.2 Li-Metal batteries        177
    • 4.14.3 Lithium sulfur batteries (Li–S)             178
    • 4.14.4 All-solid-state batteries (ASSBs)       179
  • 4.15     Economic case for Li-ion battery recycling 180
    • 4.15.1 Onshoring the battery loop   182
    • 4.15.2 Metal prices    182
    • 4.15.3 Second-life energy storage   182
    • 4.15.4 LFP batteries  183
    • 4.15.5 Other components and materials    183
    • 4.15.6 Reducing costs             184
  • 4.16     Competitive landscape          185
  • 4.17     Global capacities, current and planned       185
  • 4.18     Future outlook              187
  • 4.19     Global market 2025-2047     187
    • 4.19.1 Chemistry        188
    • 4.19.2 Ktonnes             189
    • 4.19.3 Revenues          189
    • 4.19.4 Regional            189

 

5             CRITICAL RARE-EARTH ELEMENT RECOVERY         191

  • 5.1        Introduction    191
  • 5.2        Permanent magnet applications      192
  • 5.3        Recovery technologies            193
    • 5.3.1    Long-loop and short-loop recovery methods           195
    • 5.3.2    Hydrogen decrepitation           196
    • 5.3.3    Powder metallurgy (PM)          196
    • 5.3.4    Long-loop magnet recycling 197
    • 5.3.5    Solvent Extraction      198
    • 5.3.6    Ion Exchange Resin Chromatography            198
    • 5.3.7    Electrolysis and Metallothermic Reduction               199
  • 5.4        Markets              202
    • 5.4.1    Rare-earth magnet market    202
      • 5.4.1.1 Substitution: rare-earth-free magnets as a parallel hedge               203
    • 5.4.2    Rare-earth magnet recovery technology      203
    • 5.4.3    Distributed domestic recovery           206
  • 5.5        Global market 2025-2047     206
    • 5.5.1    Ktonnes             206
    • 5.5.2    Revenues          206

 

6             CRITICAL PLATINUM GROUP METAL RECOVERY   208

  • 6.1        Introduction    208
  • 6.2        Supply chain  209
  • 6.3        Prices  210
  • 6.4        PGM Recovery               211
  • 6.5        PGM recovery from spent automotive catalysts     213
  • 6.6        PGM recovery from hydrogen electrolyzers and fuel cells 216
    • 6.6.1    Green hydrogen market           216
    • 6.6.2    PGM recovery from hydrogen-related technologies             216
    • 6.6.3    Catalyst Coated Membranes (CCMs)            217
    • 6.6.4    Fuel cell catalysts       218
    • 6.6.5    Emerging technologies            220
      • 6.6.5.1 Microwave-assisted Leaching            220
      • 6.6.5.2 Supercritical Fluid Extraction              220
      • 6.6.5.3 Bioleaching     221
      • 6.6.5.4 Electrochemical Recovery    221
      • 6.6.5.5 Membrane Separation             222
      • 6.6.5.6 Ionic Liquids   222
      • 6.6.5.7 Photocatalytic Recovery         223
    • 6.6.6    Sustainability of the hydrogen economy      223
  • 6.7        Markets              224
  • 6.8        Global market 2025-2047     226
    • 6.8.1    Ktonnes             226
    • 6.8.2    Revenues          226

 

7             COMPANY PROFILES                227 (159 company profiles)

 

8             APPENDICES  333

  • 8.1        Research Methodology           333
  • 8.2        Glossary of Terms       333
  • 8.3        List of Abbreviations  334

 

9             REFERENCES 335

 

List of Tables

  • Table 1. List of Key Critical Raw Materials and Their Primary Applications.          20
  • Table 2. Regulatory Landscape for Critical Raw Materials by Country/Region.  27
  • Table 3. Key Market Drivers and Restraints in Critical Raw Materials Recovery. 28
  • Table 4. Global Production of Critical Materials by Country (Top 10 Countries).               29
  • Table 5. Projected Demand for Critical Materials in Clean Energy Technologies (2024–2047). 30
  • Table 6. Value Proposition for Critical Material Extraction Technologies.               32
  • Table 7. Critical Material Extraction Methods Evaluated by Key Performance Metrics. 33
  • Table 8. Recovery of critical materials from secondary sources  35
  • Table 9. Critical Rare-Earth Element Recovery Technologies from Secondary Sources.              35
  • Table 10. Li-ion Battery Technology Metal Recovery Methods-Metal, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency, Challenges, Environmental Impact, Economic Viability.          37
  • Table 11. Critical Semiconductor Materials Recovery-Material, Primary Source, Recovery Method, Recovery Efficiency, Challenges, Potential Applications. 38
  • Table 12. Critical Semiconductor Material Recovery from Secondary Sources.                38
  • Table 13. Critical Platinum Group Metal Recovery.               40
  • Table 14. Price Trends for Key Recovered Materials (2020-2026).               42
  • Table 15. Global critical raw materials recovery market by material types (2025-2047), by ktonnes. 43
  • Table 16. Global critical raw materials recovery market by material types (2025-2047), by value (Billions USD).  43
  • Table 17. Global critical raw materials recovery by recovery source, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)      44
  • Table 18. Global critical raw materials recovery by recovery source, 2025–2047 (value, $B)    44
  • Table 19. Global critical raw materials recovery by region, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)            45
  • Table 20. Global critical raw materials recovery by region, 2025–2047 (value, $B)          45
  • Table 21. Primary global suppliers of critical raw materials.           47
  • Table 22. Current contribution of recycling to meet global demand of CRMs.    51
  • Table 23. Applications and Importance of Key Critical Raw Materials.    54
  • Table 24. Comparison of Recovery Rates for Different Critical Materials.             55
  • Table 25. Markets and applications: copper.             58
  • Table 26. Technologies and Techniques for Copper Extraction and Recovery.    58
  • Table 27. Markets and applications: nickel.               60
  • Table 28. Technologies and Techniques for Nickel Extraction and Recovery.       61
  • Table 29. Markets and applications: cobalt.              63
  • Table 30. Technologies and Techniques for Cobalt Extraction and Recovery.      64
  • Table 31. Markets and applications: rare earth elements.                65
  • Table 32. Technologies and Techniques for Rare Earth Elements Extraction and Recovery.      65
  • Table 33. Markets and applications: lithium.            68
  • Table 34. Technologies and Techniques for Lithium Extraction and Recovery.    68
  • Table 35. Markets and applications: gold.  70
  • Table 36. Technologies and Techniques for Gold Extraction and Recovery.          70
  • Table 37. Markets and applications: uranium.         71
  • Table 38. Technologies and Techniques for Uranium Extraction and Recovery. 72
  • Table 39. Markets and applications: zinc.   73
  • Table 40. Zinc Extraction and Recovery Technologies.        74
  • Table 41. Markets and applications: manganese. 75
  • Table 42. Manganese Extraction and Recovery Technologies.       76
  • Table 43. Markets and applications: tantalum.       77
  • Table 44. Tantalum Extraction and Recovery Technologies.            78
  • Table 45. Markets and applications: niobium.         79
  • Table 46. Niobium Extraction and Recovery Technologies.              79
  • Table 47. Markets and applications: indium.            80
  • Table 48. Indium Extraction and Recovery Technologies. 81
  • Table 49. Markets and applications: gallium.           82
  • Table 50. Gallium Extraction and Recovery Technologies.               83
  • Table 51. Markets and applications: germanium.  84
  • Table 52. Germanium Extraction and Recovery Technologies.      84
  • Table 53. Markets and applications: antimony.       85
  • Table 54. Antimony Extraction and Recovery Technologies.           86
  • Table 55. Markets and applications: scandium.     87
  • Table 56. Scandium Extraction and Recovery Technologies.          87
  • Table 57. Graphite Markets and Applications.         89
  • Table 58. Graphite Extraction and Recovery Techniques and Technologies.        89
  • Table 59. Comparison of Primary vs Secondary Production for Key Materials.   91
  • Table 60. Environmental Impact Comparison: Primary vs Secondary Production.          92
  • Table 61. Technologies for critical material recovery from secondary sources. 93
  • Table 62. Technologies for critical raw material recovery from secondary sources.        94
  • Table 63. Critical raw material extraction technologies.    96
  • Table 64. Pyrometallurgical extraction methods.   100
  • Table 65. Bioleaching processes and their applicability to critical materials.     102
  • Table 66. Comparative analysis of metal recovery technologies. 133
  • Table 67. Technology readiness of critical material recovery technologies by secondary material sources.            134
  • Table 68. Technology readiness of critical semiconductor recovery technologies.         136
  • Table 69. Critical Semiconductors Applications and Recycling Rates.    138
  • Table 70. Types of critical raw Materials found in E-Waste.             138
  • Table 71. E-waste Generation and Recycling Rates.            141
  • Table 72. Critical Semiconductor Recovery from Photovoltaics. 142
  • Table 73. Solar Panel Manufacturers and Their Recycling Capabilities. 143
  • Table 74. Concentration and Value of Critical Raw Materials in E-waste.              144
  • Table 75. Critical Semiconductor Materials and Their Applications.         145
  • Table 76. Critical Materials Waste Recycling and Recovery Processes.  146
  • Table 77. Collection and Sorting Infrastructure for Critical Materials Recycling.              146
  • Table 78. Pre-Processing Technologies for Critical Materials Recycling. 147
  • Table 79. Global recovered critical electronics materials, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)             152
  • Table 80. Global recovered critical electronics materials, 2025–2047 (value, $B)           152
  • Table 81. Recovered critical raw electronics material market, by region, 2025-2047 (ktonnes).            153
  • Table 82. Drivers for Recycling Li-ion Batteries.       154
  • Table 83. Li-ion Battery Metal Recovery Technologies.       155
  • Table 84. Li-ion battery recycling value chain.         157
  • Table 85. Typical lithium-ion battery recycling process flow.         158
  • Table 86. Main feedstock streams that can be recycled for lithium-ion batteries.            159
  • Table 87. Comparison of LIB recycling methods.   164
  • Table 88. Comparison of conventional and emerging processes for recycling beyond lithium-ion batteries.          177
  • Table 89. Economic assessment of battery recycling options.     181
  • Table 90. Retired lithium-batteries. 184
  • Table 91. Global capacities, current and planned (tonnes/year).                185
  • Table 92. Global scrapped EV (BEV+PHEV) forecast to 2047.       188
  • Table 93. Global Li-ion battery recycling by cathode chemistry, 2025–2047 (tonnes)   189
  • Table 94. Global Li-ion battery recycling volume, 2025–2047 (ktonnes) 189
  • Table 95. Global Li-ion battery recycling revenues, 2025–2047 ($B)         189
  • Table 96. Li-ion battery recycling market, by region, 2025-2047 (ktonnes).          190
  • Table 97. Critical rare-earth elements markets and applications.              191
  • Table 98. Primary and Secondary Material Streams for Rare-Earth Element Recovery. 192
  • Table 99. Critical rare-earth element recovery technologies.        193
  • Table 100. Rare Earth Element Content in Secondary Material Sources.               194
  • Table 101. Comparison of Short-loop and Long-loop Rare Earth Recovery Methods.   195
  • Table 102. Long-loop Rare-Earth Magnet Recycling Technologies.            197
  • Table 103. Rare Earth Element Demand by Application.   202
  • Table 104. Global rare-earth magnet key players in a table             203
  • Table 105. Rare Earth Magnet Recycling Value Chain.        203
  • Table 106.Technology readiness of REE recovery technologies    205
  • Table 107. Global recovered critical rare-earth elements, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)             206
  • Table 108. Global recovered critical rare-earth elements, 2025–2047 (value, $B)           207
  • Table 109. Global PGM Demand Segmented by Application.        208
  • Table 110. Critical Platinum Group Metals: Applications and Recycling Rates. 211
  • Table 111. Technology Readiness of Critical PGM Recovery from Secondary Sources.                212
  • Table 112. Automotive Catalyst Recycling Players.               215
  • Table 113. Challenges in transitioning to new PEMEL catalysts and the role of PGM recycling in a table.                217
  • Table 114. Key Suppliers of Catalysts for Fuel Cells.           219
  • Table 115. Global recovered critical platinum group metals, 2025–2047 (ktonnes)       226
  • Table 116. Global recovered critical platinum group metal market, 2025-2047 (billions USD).              226
  • Table 117. Glossary of terms.              333
  • Table 118. List of Abbreviations.        334

 

List of Figures

  • Figure 1. TRL of critical material extraction technologies. 32
  • Figure 2. Critical Raw Materials Value Chain.           41
  • Figure 3. Conceptual diagram illustrating the Circular Economy.               51
  • Figure 4. Circular Economy Model for Critical Materials.  53
  • Figure 5. Copper demand outlook.  57
  • Figure 6. Global nickel demand outlook.     59
  • Figure 7. Global cobalt demand outlook.    62
  • Figure 8. Global lithium demand outlook.  67
  • Figure 9. Global graphite demand outlook. 88
  • Figure 10.  Solvent extraction (SX) in hydrometallurgy.       98
  • Figure 11. SWOT analysis: hydrometallurgical extraction.               100
  • Figure 12. SWOT analysis: pyrometallurgical extraction of critical materials.     101
  • Figure 13. SWOT analysis: biometallurgy for critical material extraction.              104
  • Figure 14. SWOT analysis: ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents for critical material extraction.   107
  • Figure 15. SWOT analysis: electrochemical leaching for critical material extraction.    109
  • Figure 16. SWOT analysis: supercritical fluid extraction technology.        111
  • Figure 17. SWOT analysis: solvent extraction recovery technology.           114
  • Figure 18. SWOT analysis: ion exchange resin recovery technology.         117
  • Figure 19. SWOT analysis: ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents for critical material recovery.       120
  • Figure 20. SWOT analysis: precipitation for critical material recovery.     124
  • Figure 21. SWOT analysis: biosorption for critical material recovery.       126
  • Figure 22. SWOT analysis: electrowinning for critical material recovery.                129
  • Figure 23. SWOT analysis: direct critical material recovery technology. 132
  • Figure 25. Typical direct, pyrometallurgical, and hydrometallurgical recycling methods for recovery of Li-ion battery active materials. 158
  • Figure 26. Mechanical separation flow diagram.   161
  • Figure 27. Recupyl mechanical separation flow diagram. 163
  • Figure 28. Flow chart of recycling processes of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs).       165
  • Figure 29. Hydrometallurgical recycling flow sheet.             166
  • Figure 30. SWOT analysis for Hydrometallurgy Li-ion Battery Recycling.                168
  • Figure 31. Umicore recycling flow diagram.              168
  • Figure 32. SWOT analysis for Pyrometallurgy Li-ion Battery Recycling.   169
  • Figure 33. Schematic of direct recyling process.    171
  • Figure 34. SWOT analysis for Direct Li-ion Battery Recycling.        174
  • Figure 35. Schematic diagram of a Li-metal battery.            178
  • Figure 36. Schematic diagram of Lithium–sulfur battery.  179
  • Figure 37. Schematic illustration of all-solid-state lithium battery.            180

 

 

 

 

 

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