The Global Market for Biofuels to 2033

July 2023 | 401 pages, 90 tables, 113 figures | Download table of contents

Biofuels are renewable transportation fuels derived from organic material including crops, agricultural residues, and waste. There has been a huge growth in the production and usage of biofuels as substitutes for fossil fuels. Due to the declining reserve of fossil resources as well as environmental concerns, and essential energy security, it is important to develop renewable and sustainable energy and chemicals.

The use of biofuels manufactured from plant-based biomass as feedstock would reduce fossil fuel consumption and consequently the negative impact on the environment. Renewable energy sources cover a broad raw material base, including cellulosic biomass (fibrous and inedible parts of plants), waste materials, algae, and biogas.

The Global Market for Biofuels 2023-2023, now in its Third Edition (first published June 2022), covers bio-based fuels based on utilization of:

First-Generation Feedstocks (food-based) e.g. Waste oils including used cooking oil, animal fats, and other fatty acids.
Second-Generation Feedstocks (non-food based) e.g. Lignocellulosic wastes and residues, Energy crops, Agricultural residues, Forestry residues, Biogenic fraction of municipal and industrial waste.
Third-Generation Feedstocks e.g. algal biomass
Fourth-Generation Feedstocks e.g. genetically modified (GM) algae and cyanobacteria.

Report contents include:

Market trends and drivers.
Market challenges.
Biofuels pricing analysis.
Biofuel consumption to 2033.
SWOT analysis, by feedstock and biofuel type.
Recent industry developments, innovations and investments.
Market analysis including key players, end use markets, production processes, costs, production capacities, market demand for biofuels including:
- biodiesel
- renewable diesel
- bio-jet fuels
- bio-naphtha
- biomethanol
- ethanol
- biobutanol
- biogas
- biosyngas
- biohydrogen
- biofuel from plastic waste & used tires
- biofuels from carbon capture
- chemical recycling based biofuels
- electrofuels,
- bio-oils
- algae-derived biofuels
- green ammonia
- refuse-derived biofuels.
Production and synthesis methods.
198 company profiles. Companies profiled include BTG Bioliquids, Byogy Renewables, Caphenia, Enerkem, Infinium. Eni S.p.A., Ensyn, FORGE Hydrocarbons Corporation, Fulcrum Bioenergy, Genecis Bioindustries, Gevo, Haldor Topsoe, Infinium Electrofuels, Opera Bioscience, Reverion GmbH, Steeper Energy, SunFire GmbH, Vertus Energy and Viridos, Inc.

1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

2.1 Comparison to fossil fuels 23
2.2 Role in the circular economy 23
2.3 Market drivers 24
2.4 Market challenges 25
2.5 Liquid biofuels market 2020-2033, by type and production 26

3 INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENTS 2020-2023

4 BIOFUELS

4.1 The global biofuels market 35
- 4.1.1 Diesel substitutes and alternatives 36
- 4.1.2 Gasoline substitutes and alternatives 37
4.2 SWOT analysis: Biofuels market 38
4.3 Comparison of biofuel costs 2023, by type 39
4.4 Types 40
- 4.4.1 Solid Biofuels 40
- 4.4.2 Liquid Biofuels 41
- 4.4.3 Gaseous Biofuels 41
- 4.4.4 Conventional Biofuels 42
- 4.4.5 Advanced Biofuels 43
4.5 Feedstocks 44
- 4.5.1 First-generation (1-G) 46
- 4.5.2 Second-generation (2-G) 47
  - 4.5.2.1 Lignocellulosic wastes and residues 48
  - 4.5.2.2 Biorefinery lignin 49
- 4.5.3 Third-generation (3-G) 53
  - 4.5.3.1 Algal biofuels 53
- 4.5.4 Fourth-generation (4-G) 56
- 4.5.5 Advantages and disadvantages, by generation 56
- 4.5.6 Energy crops 58
  - 4.5.6.1 Feedstocks 58
  - 4.5.6.2 SWOT analysis 58
- 4.5.7 Agricultural residues 59
  - 4.5.7.1 Feedstocks 59
  - 4.5.7.2 SWOT analysis 60
- 4.5.8 Manure, sewage sludge and organic waste 61
  - 4.5.8.1 Processing pathways 61
  - 4.5.8.2 SWOT analysis 62
- 4.5.9 Forestry and wood waste 63
  - 4.5.9.1 Feedstocks 63
  - 4.5.9.2 SWOT analysis 64
- 4.5.10 Feedstock costs 65

5 HYDROCARBON BIOFUELS

5.1 Biodiesel 66
- 5.1.1 Biodiesel by generation 67
- 5.1.2 SWOT analysis 68
- 5.1.3 Production of biodiesel and other biofuels 70
  - 5.1.3.1 Pyrolysis of biomass 70
  - 5.1.3.2 Vegetable oil transesterification 73
  - 5.1.3.3 Vegetable oil hydrogenation (HVO) 74
  - 5.1.3.4 Biodiesel from tall oil 76
  - 5.1.3.5 Fischer-Tropsch BioDiesel 76
  - 5.1.3.6 Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass 78
  - 5.1.3.7 CO2 capture and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) 79
  - 5.1.3.8 Dymethyl ether (DME) 79
- 5.1.4 Prices 80
- 5.1.5 Global production and consumption 81
5.2 Renewable diesel 84
- 5.2.1 Production 84
- 5.2.2 SWOT analysis 85
- 5.2.3 Global consumption 86
- 5.2.4 Prices 88
5.3 Bio-aviation fuel (bio-jet fuel, sustainable aviation fuel, renewable jet fuel or aviation biofuel) 89
- 5.3.1 Description 89
- 5.3.2 SWOT analysis 89
- 5.3.3 Global production and consumption 90
- 5.3.4 Production pathways 91
- 5.3.5 Prices 93
- 5.3.6 Bio-aviation fuel production capacities 94
- 5.3.7 Challenges 94
- 5.3.8 Global consumption 95
5.4 Bio-naphtha 97
- 5.4.1 Overview 97
- 5.4.2 SWOT analysis 98
- 5.4.3 Markets and applications 99
- 5.4.4 Prices 100
- 5.4.5 Production capacities, by producer, current and planned 101
- 5.4.6 Production capacities, total (tonnes), historical, current and planned 102

6 ALCOHOL FUELS

6.1 Biomethanol 103
- 6.1.1 SWOT analysis 103
- 6.1.2 Methanol-to gasoline technology 104
  - 6.1.2.1 Production processes 105
6.2 Ethanol 108
- 6.2.1 Technology description 108
- 6.2.2 1G Bio-Ethanol 109
- 6.2.3 SWOT analysis 109
- 6.2.4 Ethanol to jet fuel technology 110
- 6.2.5 Methanol from pulp & paper production 111
- 6.2.6 Sulfite spent liquor fermentation 111
- 6.2.7 Gasification 112
  - 6.2.7.1 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 112
  - 6.2.7.2 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 112
- 6.2.8 CO2 capture and alcohol synthesis 113
- 6.2.9 Biomass hydrolysis and fermentation 113
  - 6.2.9.1 Separate hydrolysis and fermentation 113
  - 6.2.9.2 Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) 114
  - 6.2.9.3 Pre-hydrolysis and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (PSSF) 114
  - 6.2.9.4 Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) 115
  - 6.2.9.5 Direct conversion (consolidated bioprocessing) (CBP) 115
- 6.2.10 Global ethanol consumption 116
6.3 Biobutanol 117
- 6.3.1 Production 119
- 6.3.2 Prices 119

7 BIOMASS-BASED GAS

7.1 Feedstocks 123
7.2 Biogas 123
- 7.2.1 Biomethane 124
- 7.2.2 Production pathways 126
  - 7.2.2.1 Landfill gas recovery 126
  - 7.2.2.2 Anaerobic digestion 126
  - 7.2.2.3 Thermal gasification 127
- 7.2.3 SWOT analysis 128
- 7.2.4 Global production 129
- 7.2.5 Prices 129
  - 7.2.5.1 Raw Biogas 129
  - 7.2.5.2 Upgraded Biomethane 129
- 7.2.6 Bio-LNG 130
  - 7.2.6.1 Markets 130
  - 7.2.6.2 Production 130
  - 7.2.6.3 Plants 131
- 7.2.7 bio-CNG (compressed natural gas derived from biogas) 131
- 7.2.8 Carbon capture from biogas 132
7.3 Biosyngas 133
- 7.3.1 Production 133
- 7.3.2 Prices 134
7.4 Biohydrogen 134
- 7.4.1 Description 134
- 7.4.2 SWOT analysis 135
- 7.4.3 Production of biohydrogen from biomass 136
  - 7.4.3.1 Biological Conversion Routes 136
  - 7.4.3.2 Thermochemical conversion routes 137
- 7.4.4 Applications 139
- 7.4.5 Prices 139
7.5 Biochar in biogas production 140
7.6 Bio-DME 140

8 CHEMICAL RECYCLING FOR BIOFUELS

8.1 Plastic pyrolysis 141
8.2 Used tires pyrolysis 142
- 8.2.1 Conversion to biofuel 143
8.3 Co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastic wastes 144
8.4 Gasification 145
- 8.4.1 Syngas conversion to methanol 146
- 8.4.2 Biomass gasification and syngas fermentation 150
- 8.4.3 Biomass gasification and syngas thermochemical conversion 150
8.5 Hydrothermal cracking 151
8.6 SWOT analysis 152

9 ELECTROFUELS (E-FUELS)

9.1 Introduction 153
- 9.1.1 Benefits of e-fuels 155
9.2 Feedstocks 156
- 9.2.1 Hydrogen electrolysis 156
- 9.2.2 CO2 capture 157
9.3 SWOT analysis 157
9.4 Production 158
- 9.4.1 eFuel production facilities, current and planned 160
9.5 Electrolysers 161
- 9.5.1 Commercial alkaline electrolyser cells (AECs) 163
- 9.5.2 PEM electrolysers (PEMEC) 163
- 9.5.3 High-temperature solid oxide electrolyser cells (SOECs) 163
9.6 Prices 163
9.7 Market challenges 166
9.8 Companies 167

10 ALGAE-DERIVED BIOFUELS

10.1 Technology description 168
10.2 Conversion pathways 168
10.3 SWOT analysis 169
10.4 Production 170
10.5 Market challenges 171
10.6 Prices 172
10.7 Producers 172

11 GREEN AMMONIA

11.1 Production 173
- 11.1.1 Decarbonisation of ammonia production 175
- 11.1.2 Green ammonia projects 176
11.2 Green ammonia synthesis methods 176
- 11.2.1 Haber-Bosch process 176
- 11.2.2 Biological nitrogen fixation 177
- 11.2.3 Electrochemical production 178
- 11.2.4 Chemical looping processes 178
11.3 SWOT analysis 178
11.4 Blue ammonia 179
- 11.4.1 Blue ammonia projects 179
11.5 Markets and applications 180
- 11.5.1 Chemical energy storage 180
  - 11.5.1.1 Ammonia fuel cells 180
- 11.5.2 Marine fuel 181
11.6 Prices 183
11.7 Estimated market demand 185
11.8 Companies and projects 185

12 BIOFUELS FROM CARBON CAPTURE

12.1 Overview 188
12.2 CO2 capture from point sources 190
12.3 Production routes 191
12.4 SWOT analysis 192
12.5 Direct air capture (DAC) 193
- 12.5.1 Description 193
- 12.5.2 Deployment 195
- 12.5.3 Point source carbon capture versus Direct Air Capture 195
- 12.5.4 Technologies 196
  - 12.5.4.1 Solid sorbents 197
  - 12.5.4.2 Liquid sorbents 199
  - 12.5.4.3 Liquid solvents 199
  - 12.5.4.4 Airflow equipment integration 200
  - 12.5.4.5 Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) 200
  - 12.5.4.6 Direct conversion 201
  - 12.5.4.7 Co-product generation 201
  - 12.5.4.8 Low Temperature DAC 201
  - 12.5.4.9 Regeneration methods 202
- 12.5.5 Commercialization and plants 202
- 12.5.6 Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in DAC 203
- 12.5.7 DAC plants and projects-current and planned 203
- 12.5.8 Markets for DAC 210
- 12.5.9 Costs 211
- 12.5.10 Challenges 216
- 12.5.11 Players and production 217
12.6 Methanol 217
12.7 Algae-based carbon utilization 218
12.8 CO₂-fuels from solar 219
12.9 Companies 221
12.10 Challenges 223

13 BIO-OILS (PYROLYSIS OIL)

13.1 Description 224
- 13.1.1 Advantages of bio-oils 224
13.2 Production 226
- 13.2.1 Fast Pyrolysis 226
- 13.2.2 Costs of production 226
- 13.2.3 Upgrading 226
13.3 SWOT analysis 228
13.4 Applications 229
13.5 Bio-oil producers 229
13.6 Prices 230

14 REFUSE-DERIVED FUELS (RDF)

14.1 Overview 231
14.2 Production 231
- 14.2.1 Production process 232
- 14.2.2 Mechanical biological treatment 232
14.3 Markets 233

15 COMPANY PROFILES (198 company profiles)

16 REFERENCES

List of Tables

Table 1. Market drivers for biofuels. 24
Table 2. Market challenges for biofuels. 25
Table 3. Liquid biofuels market 2020-2033, by type and production. 27
Table 4. Industry developments in biofuels 2020-2023. 29
Table 5. Comparison of biofuels. 34
Table 6. Comparison of biofuel costs (USD/liter) 2023, by type. 39
Table 7. Categories and examples of solid biofuel. 40
Table 8. Comparison of biofuels and e-fuels to fossil and electricity. 43
Table 9. Classification of biomass feedstock. 44
Table 10. Biorefinery feedstocks. 45
Table 11. Feedstock conversion pathways. 45
Table 12. First-Generation Feedstocks. 46
Table 13. Lignocellulosic ethanol plants and capacities. 48
Table 14. Comparison of pulping and biorefinery lignins. 49
Table 15. Commercial and pre-commercial biorefinery lignin production facilities and processes 50
Table 16. Operating and planned lignocellulosic biorefineries and industrial flue gas-to-ethanol. 52
Table 17. Properties of microalgae and macroalgae. 54
Table 18. Yield of algae and other biodiesel crops. 55
Table 19. Advantages and disadvantages of biofuels, by generation. 56
Table 20. Biodiesel by generation. 67
Table 21. Biodiesel production techniques. 70
Table 22. Summary of pyrolysis technique under different operating conditions. 71
Table 23. Biomass materials and their bio-oil yield. 72
Table 24. Biofuel production cost from the biomass pyrolysis process. 73
Table 25. Properties of vegetable oils in comparison to diesel. 74
Table 26. Main producers of HVO and capacities. 76
Table 27. Example commercial Development of BtL processes. 77
Table 28. Pilot or demo projects for biomass to liquid (BtL) processes. 77
Table 29. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2033 (M litres/year). 82
Table 30. Global renewable diesel consumption, to 2033 (M litres/year). 87
Table 31. Renewable diesel price ranges. 88
Table 32. Advantages and disadvantages of Bio-aviation fuel. 89
Table 33. Production pathways for Bio-aviation fuel. 91
Table 34. Current and announced Bio-aviation fuel facilities and capacities. 94
Table 35. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2033 (Million litres/year). 95
Table 36. Bio-based naphtha markets and applications. 99
Table 37. Bio-naphtha market value chain. 99
Table 38. Bio-naphtha pricing against petroleum-derived naphtha and related fuel products. 101
Table 39. Bio-based Naphtha production capacities, by producer. 101
Table 40. Comparison of biogas, biomethane and natural gas. 106
Table 41. Processes in bioethanol production. 114
Table 42. Microorganisms used in CBP for ethanol production from biomass lignocellulosic. 115
Table 43. Ethanol consumption 2010-2033 (million litres). 116
Table 44. Biogas feedstocks. 123
Table 45. Existing and planned bio-LNG production plants. 131
Table 46. Methods for capturing carbon dioxide from biogas. 132
Table 47. Comparison of different Bio-H2 production pathways. 136
Table 48. Markets and applications for biohydrogen. 139
Table 49. Summary of gasification technologies. 145
Table 50. Overview of hydrothermal cracking for advanced chemical recycling. 151
Table 51. Applications of e-fuels, by type. 154
Table 52. Overview of e-fuels. 155
Table 53. Benefits of e-fuels. 155
Table 54. eFuel production facilities, current and planned. 160
Table 55. Main characteristics of different electrolyzer technologies. 162
Table 56. Market challenges for e-fuels. 166
Table 57. E-fuels companies. 167
Table 58. Algae-derived biofuel producers. 172
Table 59. Green ammonia projects (current and planned). 176
Table 60. Blue ammonia projects. 179
Table 61. Ammonia fuel cell technologies. 180
Table 62. Market overview of green ammonia in marine fuel. 181
Table 63. Summary of marine alternative fuels. 182
Table 64. Estimated costs for different types of ammonia. 184
Table 65. Main players in green ammonia. 185
Table 66. Market overview for CO2 derived fuels. 188
Table 67. Point source examples. 190
Table 68. Advantages and disadvantages of DAC. 194
Table 69. Companies developing airflow equipment integration with DAC. 200
Table 70. Companies developing Passive Direct Air Capture (PDAC) technologies. 200
Table 71. Companies developing regeneration methods for DAC technologies. 202
Table 72. DAC companies and technologies. 202
Table 73. DAC technology developers and production. 204
Table 74. DAC projects in development. 209
Table 75. Markets for DAC. 210
Table 76. Costs summary for DAC. 211
Table 77. Cost estimates of DAC. 214
Table 78. Challenges for DAC technology. 216
Table 79. DAC companies and technologies. 217
Table 80. Microalgae products and prices. 219
Table 81. Main Solar-Driven CO2 Conversion Approaches. 220
Table 82. Companies in CO2-derived fuel products. 221
Table 83. Typical composition and physicochemical properties reported for bio-oils and heavy petroleum-derived oils. 225
Table 84. Properties and characteristics of pyrolysis liquids derived from biomass versus a fuel oil. 225
Table 85. Main techniques used to upgrade bio-oil into higher-quality fuels. 227
Table 86. Markets and applications for bio-oil. 229
Table 87. Bio-oil producers. 229
Table 88. Key resource recovery technologies 232
Table 89. Markets and end uses for refuse-derived fuels (RDF). 233
Table 90. Granbio Nanocellulose Processes. 303

List of Figures

Figure 1. Liquid biofuel production and consumption (in thousands of m3), 2000-2021. 26
Figure 2. Distribution of global liquid biofuel production in 2022. 27
Figure 3. Diesel and gasoline alternatives and blends. 37
Figure 4. SWOT analysis for biofuels. 39
Figure 5. Schematic of a biorefinery for production of carriers and chemicals. 50
Figure 6. Hydrolytic lignin powder. 53
Figure 7. SWOT analysis for energy crops in biofuels. 59
Figure 8. SWOT analysis for agricultural residues in biofuels. 61
Figure 10. SWOT analysis for Manure, sewage sludge and organic waste in biofuels. 63
Figure 11. SWOT analysis for forestry and wood waste in biofuels. 65
Figure 12. Range of biomass cost by feedstock type. 65
Figure 13. Regional production of biodiesel (billion litres). 67
Figure 14. SWOT analysis for biodiesel. 69
Figure 15. Flow chart for biodiesel production. 74
Figure 16. Biodiesel (B20) average prices, current and historical, USD/litre. 80
Figure 17. Global biodiesel consumption, 2010-2033 (M litres/year). 82
Figure 18. SWOT analysis for renewable iesel. 86
Figure 19. Global renewable diesel consumption, to 2033 (M litres/year). 87
Figure 20. SWOT analysis for Bio-aviation fuel. 90
Figure 21. Global bio-jet fuel consumption to 2033 (Million litres/year). 95
Figure 22. SWOT analysis for bio-naphtha. 98
Figure 23. Bio-based naphtha production capacities, 2018-2033 (tonnes). 102
Figure 24. SWOT analysis biomethanol. 104
Figure 25. Renewable Methanol Production Processes from Different Feedstocks. 105
Figure 26. Production of biomethane through anaerobic digestion and upgrading. 106
Figure 27. Production of biomethane through biomass gasification and methanation. 107
Figure 28. Production of biomethane through the Power to methane process. 108
Figure 29. SWOT analysis for ethanol. 110
Figure 30. Ethanol consumption 2010-2033 (million litres). 116
Figure 31. Properties of petrol and biobutanol. 118
Figure 32. Biobutanol production route. 118
Figure 33. Overview of biogas utilization. 121
Figure 34. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 122
Figure 35. Overview of biogas utilization. 124
Figure 36. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 125
Figure 37. Schematic overview of anaerobic digestion process for biomethane production. 127
Figure 38. Schematic overview of biomass gasification for biomethane production. 128
Figure 39. SWOT analysis for biogas. 129
Figure 40. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021. 133
Figure 41. SWOT analysis for biohydrogen. 136
Figure 42. Waste plastic production pathways to (A) diesel and (B) gasoline 141
Figure 43. Schematic for Pyrolysis of Scrap Tires. 143
Figure 44. Used tires conversion process. 144
Figure 45. Total syngas market by product in MM Nm³/h of Syngas, 2021. 146
Figure 46. Overview of biogas utilization. 148
Figure 47. Biogas and biomethane pathways. 149
Figure 48. SWOT analysis for chemical recycling of biofuels. 152
Figure 49. Process steps in the production of electrofuels. 153
Figure 50. Mapping storage technologies according to performance characteristics. 154
Figure 51. Production process for green hydrogen. 157
Figure 52. SWOT analysis for E-fuels. 158
Figure 53. E-liquids production routes. 159
Figure 54. Fischer-Tropsch liquid e-fuel products. 159
Figure 55. Resources required for liquid e-fuel production. 160
Figure 56. Levelized cost and fuel-switching CO2 prices of e-fuels. 164
Figure 57. Cost breakdown for e-fuels. 166
Figure 58. Pathways for algal biomass conversion to biofuels. 168
Figure 59. SWOT analysis for algae-derived biofuels. 169
Figure 60. Algal biomass conversion process for biofuel production. 171
Figure 61. Classification and process technology according to carbon emission in ammonia production. 173
Figure 62. Green ammonia production and use. 175
Figure 63. Schematic of the Haber Bosch ammonia synthesis reaction. 177
Figure 64. Schematic of hydrogen production via steam methane reformation. 177
Figure 65. SWOT analysis for green ammonia. 179
Figure 66. Estimated production cost of green ammonia. 184
Figure 67. Projected annual ammonia production, million tons. 185
Figure 68. CO2 capture and separation technology. 187
Figure 69. Conversion route for CO2-derived fuels and chemical intermediates. 189
Figure 70. Conversion pathways for CO2-derived methane, methanol and diesel. 190
Figure 71. SWOT analysis for biofuels from carbon capture. 192
Figure 72. CO2 captured from air using liquid and solid sorbent DAC plants, storage, and reuse. 193
Figure 73. Global CO2 capture from biomass and DAC in the Net Zero Scenario. 194
Figure 74. DAC technologies. 196
Figure 75. Schematic of Climeworks DAC system. 197
Figure 76. Climeworks’ first commercial direct air capture (DAC) plant, based in Hinwil, Switzerland. 198
Figure 77. Flow diagram for solid sorbent DAC. 199
Figure 78. Direct air capture based on high temperature liquid sorbent by Carbon Engineering. 199
Figure 79. Global capacity of direct air capture facilities. 204
Figure 80. Global map of DAC and CCS plants. 210
Figure 81. Schematic of costs of DAC technologies. 212
Figure 82. DAC cost breakdown and comparison. 213
Figure 83. Operating costs of generic liquid and solid-based DAC systems. 215
Figure 84. CO2 feedstock for the production of e-methanol. 218
Figure 85. Schematic illustration of (a) biophotosynthetic, (b) photothermal, (c) microbial-photoelectrochemical, (d) photosynthetic and photocatalytic (PS/PC), (e) photoelectrochemical (PEC), and (f) photovoltaic plus electrochemical (PV+EC) approaches for CO2 c 220
Figure 86. Audi synthetic fuels. 221
Figure 87. Bio-oil upgrading/fractionation techniques. 227
Figure 88. SWOT analysis for bio-oils. 228
Figure 89. ANDRITZ Lignin Recovery process. 241
Figure 90. ChemCyclingTM prototypes. 247
Figure 91. ChemCycling circle by BASF. 247
Figure 92. FBPO process 258
Figure 93. Direct Air Capture Process. 262
Figure 94. CRI process. 265
Figure 95. Cassandra Oil process. 268
Figure 96. Colyser process. 274
Figure 97. Domsjö process. 278
Figure 98. ECFORM electrolysis reactor schematic. 280
Figure 99. Dioxycle modular electrolyzer. 281
Figure 100. Domsjö process. 282
Figure 101. FuelPositive system. 296
Figure 102. INERATEC unit. 313
Figure 103. Infinitree swing method. 314
Figure 104. Audi/Krajete unit. 320
Figure 105. Enfinity cellulosic ethanol technology process. 347
Figure 106: Plantrose process. 354
Figure 107. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production. 370
Figure 108. O12 Reactor. 375
Figure 109. Sunglasses with lenses made from CO2-derived materials. 375
Figure 110. CO2 made car part. 376
Figure 111. The Velocys process. 379
Figure 112. Goldilocks process and applications. 382
Figure 113. The Proesa® Process. 383

The Global Market for Biofuels 2023-2033

PDF download.