Global Market Conductive Inks | The Global Market for Conductive Inks

Published March 2018 | 226 pages, 45 tables, 93 figures | Table of contents

The global market for conductive inks has grown considerably in recent years due to their utilization in printed and flexible electronics, although many impressive materials are still in development (e.g. graphene, nanotubes).

There is an increasing demand for printable conductive inks for applications such as smart packaging, flexible displays, OLEDs, thin film transistors, OPV and smart textiles.

Not only will demand across all current markets grow, but the development of new materials and processes is leading to the creation of new market opportunities for conductive ink producers and suppliers in flexible, customized and 3D printed electronics. Opportunities explored in this report include:

Flexible and stretchable electronics.
Printed electronics for smartphones (printed antennas, touch screens).
Printed circuit boards.
3D printing.
Smart packaging.
Photovoltaics.
Flexible lighting.
Flexible displays.
Wearables and IoT.
Healthcare wearable monitoting.
Smart textiles.

Copper and silver inks will continue to dominate the market for the next few years but growth in flexible electronics necessitates the development of new materials. Conductive ink materials explored in this report include:

Copper ink.
Silver ink (Flake, nanoparticles, nanowires, ion).
Conductive polymers.
Copper nanoparticles.
Metal nanoparticles.
Carbon nanotubes.
Graphene.

Report contents include:

Conductive inks market forecasts.
In depth assessment of conductive ink types including properties, advantages, disadvantages, prospects, applications and revenues.
Opportunity assessment by application and market including photovoltaics, touch screens, flexible displays, automotive, 3D printing, sensors, printed circuit boards, electronic textiles and wearables, RFID, printed memory and transistors, printed heaters, conductive pens etc.
Latest products.
>100 company profiles.

The Global Market for Conductive Inks to 2027

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The Global Market for Conductive Inks to 2027

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The Global Market for Conductive Inks to 2027

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY…………………………………………………………. 18

1.1 The evolution of electronics……………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
1.2 The wearables revolution……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
1.3 Flexible, thin, and large-area form factors………………………………………………………………………. 20
1.4 From rigid to flexible and stretchable……………………………………………………………………………… 22
1.5 Organic and printed electronics……………………………………………………………………………………… 24
1.6 New conductive materials………………………………………………………………………………………………. 26
1.7 Applications……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29

2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY………………………………………………… 31

3 MATERIALS UTILIZED IN CONDUCTIVE INKS………………………… 32

3.1 Conductive ink types………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 32
- 3.1.1 Nanoparticle ink……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 34
3.2 Sintering…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34
3.3 Conductive Filaments…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 35
3.4 Conductive films, foils and grids……………………………………………………………………………………… 35
3.5 Printing methods…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 35
3.6 Inkjet printing In flexible electronics………………………………………………………………………………… 39
3.7 SILVER INK (Flake, nanoparticles, nanowires, ion)……………………………………………………….. 40
- 3.7.1 Silver flake……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 40
- 3.7.2 Silver (Ag) nanoparticle ink…………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
  - 3.7.2.1 Conductivity…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 42
- 3.7.3 Silver nanowires…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 43
- 3.7.4 Prices……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 46
  - 3.7.4.1 Cost for printed area………………………………………………………………………………………. 46
3.8 COPPER INK…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 47
- 3.8.1 Silver-coated copper………………………………………………………………………………………………. 48
- 3.8.2 Copper (Cu) nanoparticle ink…………………………………………………………………………………. 48
- 3.8.3 Prices……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 49
3.9 CARBON NANOTUBES…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 50
- 3.9.1 Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 50
- 3.9.2 Properties utilized in printed electronics…………………………………………………………………. 51
  - 3.9.2.1 Single-walled carbon nanotubes……………………………………………………………………. 52
- 3.9.3 Applications……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 54
3.10 CONDUCTIVE POLYMERS (CP)………………………………………………………………………………. 56
- 3.10.1 Properties…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 56
  - 3.10.1.1 PDMS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 57
  - 3.10.1.2 PEDOT: PSS…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 58
    - 3.10.1.2.1 Transparency…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 58
- 3.10.2 Properties utilized in printed electronics…………………………………………………………….. 58
- 3.10.3 Applications……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 60
3.11 GRAPHENE……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
- 3.11.1 Properties…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 62
- 3.11.2 Properties utilized in printed electronics…………………………………………………………….. 64
- 3.11.3 Applications in electronics………………………………………………………………………………….. 65
3.12 OTHER TYPES………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 68
- 3.12.1 Gold (Au) nanoparticle ink………………………………………………………………………………….. 68
- 3.12.2 Siloxane inks……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 69

4 THE GLOBAL MARKET FOR CONDUCTIVE INKS……………………. 70

4.1 MARKET DRIVERS……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70
4.2 APPLICATIONS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 71
- 4.2.1 Current products…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
- 4.2.2 Advanced materials solutions………………………………………………………………………………… 73
  - 4.2.2.1.1 Graphene conductive inks…………………………………………………………………………………. 77
- 4.2.3 Applications……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 78
  - 4.2.3.1 RFID………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 78
  - 4.2.3.2 Smart labels…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 79
  - 4.2.3.3 Printable sensors…………………………………………………………………………………………… 79
  - 4.2.3.4 Printed batteries…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 80
  - 4.2.3.5 Printable antennas…………………………………………………………………………………………. 82
  - 4.2.3.6 In-mold electronics………………………………………………………………………………………… 83
  - 4.2.3.7 Printed transistors………………………………………………………………………………………….. 84
4.3 MARKETS FOR CONDUCTIVE INKS……………………………………………………………………………. 85
- 4.3.1 WEARABLE ELECTRONICS AND IOT…………………………………………………………………. 88
  - 4.3.1.1 Market drivers and trends………………………………………………………………………………. 88
  - 4.3.1.2 Applications……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 93
    - 4.3.1.2.1 Transparent conductive films……………………………………………………………………………… 93
    - 4.3.1.2.2 Printable sensors…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 99
    - 4.3.1.2.2.1 Graphene………………………………………………………………………………………………… 100
    - 4.3.1.2.3 Electroactive polymers (EAPs)………………………………………………………………………….. 102
    - 4.3.1.2.4 Wearable gas sensors…………………………………………………………………………………….. 103
    - 4.3.1.2.5 Wearable strain sensors………………………………………………………………………………….. 104
    - 4.3.1.2.6 Wearable tactile sensors…………………………………………………………………………………. 104
    - 4.3.1.2.7 Industrial monitoring……………………………………………………………………………………….. 105
    - 4.3.1.2.8 Military………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 106
  - 4.3.1.3 Global market size 2015-2027…………………………………………………………………….. 107
- 4.3.2 CLOTHING AND APPAREL…………………………………………………………………………………. 111
  - 4.3.2.1 Market drivers and trends……………………………………………………………………………. 111
  - 4.3.2.2 Applications…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 113
    - 4.3.2.2.1 Smart clothing……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 113
    - 4.3.2.2.2 Conductive yarns…………………………………………………………………………………………… 117
    - 4.3.2.2.3 Conductive coatings……………………………………………………………………………………….. 118
    - 4.3.2.2.4 Smart helmets………………………………………………………………………………………………. 121
    - 4.3.2.2.5 Solar energy harvesting textiles………………………………………………………………………… 121
  - 4.3.2.3 Global market size 2015-2027…………………………………………………………………….. 122
- 4.3.3 HEALTHCARE (WEARABLES AND BIOSENSORS)…………………………………………… 127
  - 4.3.3.1 Market drivers and trends……………………………………………………………………………. 127
  - 4.3.3.2 Applications…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 129
    - 4.3.3.2.1 Skin sensors…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 135
    - 4.3.3.2.2 Nanomaterials-based devices…………………………………………………………………………… 136
    - 4.3.3.2.3 Patch-type skin sensors………………………………………………………………………………….. 139
    - 4.3.3.2.4 Skin temperature monitoring…………………………………………………………………………….. 142
    - 4.3.3.2.5 Hydration sensors………………………………………………………………………………………….. 143
    - 4.3.3.2.6 Wearable sweat sensors…………………………………………………………………………………. 144
    - 4.3.3.2.7 UV patches…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 146
    - 4.3.3.2.8 Smart footwear……………………………………………………………………………………………… 148
  - 4.3.3.3 Global market size 2015-2027…………………………………………………………………….. 148
- 4.3.4 RFID…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 150
  - 4.3.4.1 Applications…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 150
    - 4.3.4.1.1 Smart labels…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 153
  - 4.3.4.2 Global market size 2015-2027…………………………………………………………………….. 154
- 4.3.5 ENERGY STORAGE AND CONVERSION………………………………………………………….. 155
  - 4.3.5.1 Market drivers and trends……………………………………………………………………………. 155
  - 4.3.5.2 Flexible and stretchable printed batteries…………………………………………………….. 157
  - 4.3.5.3 Flexible and stretchable supercapacitors…………………………………………………….. 158
  - 4.3.5.4 Stretchable piezoelectric energy harvesting………………………………………………… 162
  - 4.3.5.5 Stretchable triboelectric energy harvesting………………………………………………….. 163
  - 4.3.5.6 Global market size 2015-2027…………………………………………………………………….. 163
- 4.3.6 OTHER MARKETS………………………………………………………………………………………………. 167
  - 4.3.6.1 AUTOMOTIVE…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 167
    - 4.3.6.1.1 Conductive pastes for automotive glass………………………………………………………………. 167
    - 4.3.6.1.2 Displays………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 167
  - 4.3.6.2 FLEXIBLE DISPLAYS…………………………………………………………………………………. 168
    - 4.3.6.2.1 Flexible LCDs……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 168
    - 4.3.6.2.2 Flexible OLEDs (FOLED)………………………………………………………………………………… 169
    - 4.3.6.2.3 Flexible AMOLED………………………………………………………………………………………….. 171
    - 4.3.6.2.4 Flexible electrophoretic displays………………………………………………………………………… 173
  - 4.3.6.3 OLED FLEXIBLE LIGHTING……………………………………………………………………….. 174
  - 4.3.6.4 IN-MOLD ELECTRONICS…………………………………………………………………………… 175
  - 4.3.6.5 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS……………………………………………………………………… 176
  - 4.3.6.6 TRANSISTORS…………………………………………………………………………………………… 179

5 COMPANY PROFILES………………………………………………………….. 180-225 (101 company profiles)

TABLES

Table 1: Evolution of wearable devices, 2011-2017……………………………………………………………………. 19
Table 2: Advanced materials for printable, flexible and stretchable sensors and Electronics-Advantages and disadvantages……………………………………………………………………………………………. 26
Table 3: Sheet resistance (RS) and transparency (T) values for transparent conductive oxides and alternative materials for transparent conductive electrodes (TCE)……………………………………….. 28
Table 4: Companies developing metal nanoparticles for applications in printable, flexible and stretchable electronics………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 30
Table 5: Typical conductive ink formulation………………………………………………………………………………… 32
Table 6: Characteristics of analog printing processes for conductive inks…………………………………. 37
Table 7: Characteristics of digital printing processes for conductive inks……………………………………. 38
Table 8: Properties of CNTs and comparable materials……………………………………………………………… 50
Table 9: Companies developing carbon nanotubes for applications in printable, flexible and stretchable electronics………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 55
Table 10: Types of flexible conductive polymers, properties and applications……………………………. 58
Table 11: Properties of graphene……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
Table 12: Companies developing graphene for applications in printable, flexible and stretchable electronics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 66
Table 13: Market drivers for printable, flexible and stretchable conductive inks…………………………. 70
Table 14: Printable electronics products…………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
Table 15: Comparative properties of conductive inks…………………………………………………………………. 73
Table 16: Applications in conductive inks by type and benefits thereof………………………………………. 74
Table 17: Applications in flexible and stretchable batteries, by nanomaterials type and benefits thereof…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 80
Table 18: Price comparison of thin-film transistor (TFT) electronics technology…………………………. 85
Table 19: Conductive inks in the flexible and stretchable electronics market 2017-2027 revenue forecast (million $), by ink types……………………………………………………………………………………………. 88
Table 20: Market drivers for conductive inks for wearables and IoT…………………………………………… 89
Table 21: Transparent conductive switches-PEDOT………………………………………………………………….. 94
Table 22: Comparison of ITO replacements……………………………………………………………………………….. 94
Table 23: Applications in printable, flexible and stretchable sensors, by advanced materials type and benefits thereof………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 96
Table 24: Graphene properties relevant to application in sensors……………………………………………. 101
Table 25: Global market for wearable electronics, 2015-2020, by application, billions $………….. 107
Table 26: The market for nanomaterials-based conductive inks in wearables and IoT, by conductive ink type, 2018-2027, conservative estimate………………………………………………………………………… 109
Table 27: Market drivers for conductive inks in electronic clothing and apparel……………………….. 111
Table 28: Applications in textiles, by advanced materials type and benefits thereof…………………. 115
Table 29: Applications and benefits of graphene in textiles and apparel………………………………….. 119
Table 30: Global market for smart clothing and apparel, 2014-2021, units and revenues (US$). 123
Table 31: Global smart clothing, interactive fabrics and apparel market…………………………………… 124
Table 32: The market for nanomaterials-based conductive inks in clothing and apparel, by conductive ink type, 2018-2027, conservative estimate……………………………………………………… 126
Table 33: Market drivers for conductive inks in medical and healthcare sensors and wearables. 127
Table 34: Wearable medical device products and stage of development…………………………………. 131
Table 35: Applications in flexible and stretchable health monitors, by advanced materials type and benefits thereof…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 136
Table 36: Potential addressable market for smart textiles and wearables in medical and healthcare…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 148
Table 37: Opportunities for advanced materials in printed electronics……………………………………… 151
Table 38: The market for nanomaterials-based conductive inks in RFID, by conductive ink type, 2018-2027, conservative estimate………………………………………………………………………………………. 154
Table 39: Market drivers for conductive inks in energy storage and conversion……………………….. 155
Table 40: Applications in flexible and stretchable batteries, by materials type and benefits thereof…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 157
Table 41: Potential market size for printable batteries………………………………………………………………. 163
Table 42: The market for nanomaterials-based conductive inks in energy storage and conversion, by conductive ink type, 2018-2027, conservative estimate…………………………………………………. 166
Table 43: Applications in flexible and stretchable circuit boards, by advanced materials type and benefits thereof…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 177
Table 44: Price comparison of thin-film transistor (TFT) electronics technology……………………….. 178
Table 45: Price comparison of thin-film transistor (TFT) electronics technology……………………….. 179

FIGURES

Figure 1: Evolution of electronics………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Figure 2: Wove Band………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22
Figure 3: Wearable graphene medical sensor……………………………………………………………………………. 24
Figure 4: Applications timeline for organic and printed electronics……………………………………………… 26
Figure 5: Revenues for silver flake conductive ink, 2015-2027 (millions USD)…………………………… 41
Figure 6: Silver nanocomposite ink after sintering and resin bonding of discrete electronic components………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42
Figure 7: Flexible silver nanowire wearable mesh………………………………………………………………………. 45
Figure 8: Revenues for silver nanoparticles/nanowire conductive ink, 2015-2027 (millions USD). 45
Figure 9: Copper based inks on flexible substrate………………………………………………………………………. 47
Figure 10: Revenues for copper conductive ink, 2015-2027 (millions USD)……………………………….. 48
Figure 11: Revenues for copper nanoparticle conductive ink, 2015-2027 (millions USD)…………… 49
Figure 12: Schematic of single-walled carbon nanotube…………………………………………………………….. 53
Figure 13: Stretchable SWNT memory and logic devices for wearable electronics……………………. 53
Figure 14: Revenues for CNT conductive ink, 2015-2027 (millions USD)…………………………………… 56
Figure 15: Revenues for conductive polymers, 2015-2027 (millions USD)…………………………………. 61
Figure 16: Graphene layer structure schematic………………………………………………………………………….. 63
Figure 17: Flexible graphene touch screen…………………………………………………………………………………. 64
Figure 18: Vorbeck Materials conductive ink products……………………………………………………………….. 65
Figure 19: Foldable graphene E-paper……………………………………………………………………………………….. 66
Figure 20: Revenues for graphene conductive ink, 2015-2027 (millions USD)…………………………… 68
Figure 21: BGT Materials graphene ink product…………………………………………………………………………. 78
Figure 22: Flexible RFID tag……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 78
Figure 23: Enfucell Printed Battery……………………………………………………………………………………………… 82
Figure 24: Graphene printed antenna…………………………………………………………………………………………. 82
Figure 25: Printed antennas for aircraft………………………………………………………………………………………. 83
Figure 26: Stretchable material for formed an in-molded electronics………………………………………….. 84
Figure 27: Wearable patch with a skin-compatible, pressure-sensitive adhesive……………………….. 84
Figure 28: Thin film transistor incorporating CNTs……………………………………………………………………… 84
Figure 29: Conductive inks in the printed and flexible electronics market 2015-2027 revenue forecast (million $), by end user market………………………………………………………………………………… 87
Figure 30: Conductive inks in the printed and flexible electronics market 2015-2027 revenue forecast (million $), by ink types……………………………………………………………………………………………. 87
Figure 31: Panasonic CNT stretchable Resin Film……………………………………………………………………… 96
Figure 32: C2Sense flexible sensor………………………………………………………………………………………….. 100
Figure 33: Wearable gas sensor………………………………………………………………………………………………. 104
Figure 34: BeBop Sensors Marcel Modular Data Gloves………………………………………………………….. 105
Figure 35: BeBop Sensors Smart Helmet Sensor System………………………………………………………… 105
Figure 36: Torso and Extremities Protection (TEP) system………………………………………………………. 106
Figure 37: Global market for wearable electronics, 2015-2020, by application, billions $…………. 107
Figure 38: Global transparent conductive electrodes market forecast by materials type, 2012-2025, millions $…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 109
Figure 39: Global market size for conductive ink in wearables and IoT 2015-2027………………….. 109
Figure 40: The market for nanomaterials-based conductive inks in wearables and IoT, by conductive ink type, 2018-2027, conservative estimate……………………………………………………… 110
Figure 41: Omniphobic-coated fabric………………………………………………………………………………………… 114
Figure 42: Conductive yarns…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 118
Figure 43: Work out shirt incorporating ECG sensors, flexible lights and heating elements……… 120
Figure 44: Schematic illustration of the fabrication concept for textile-based dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) made by sewing textile electrodes onto cloth or paper………………………………… 122
Figure 45: Global smart clothing and apparel market 2014-2021 revenue forecast (million $)…. 123
Figure 46 Global smart clothing, interactive fabrics and apparel sales by market segment, 2016. 125
Figure 47: Global market size for conductive ink in clothing and apparel 2015-2027……………….. 125
Figure 48: The market for nanomaterials-based conductive inks in clothing and apparel, by conductive ink type, 2018-2027, conservative estimate……………………………………………………… 126
Figure 49: Connected human body…………………………………………………………………………………………… 130
Figure 50: Flexible, lightweight temperature sensor…………………………………………………………………. 131
Figure 51: Prototype ECG sensor patch…………………………………………………………………………………… 135
Figure 52: Graphene-based E-skin patch…………………………………………………………………………………. 136
Figure 53: Wearable bio-fluid monitoring system for monitoring of hydration……………………………. 139
Figure 54: Smart mouth guard………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 139
Figure 55: Smart e-skin system comprising health-monitoring sensors, displays, and ultra flexible PLEDs………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 141
Figure 56: Graphene medical patch………………………………………………………………………………………….. 142
Figure 57: TempTraQ wearable wireless thermometer…………………………………………………………….. 143
Figure 58: Mimo baby monitor………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 143
Figure 59: Nanowire skin hydration patch…………………………………………………………………………………. 144
Figure 60: Wearable sweat sensor…………………………………………………………………………………………… 145
Figure 61: GraphWear wearable sweat sensor………………………………………………………………………… 146
Figure 62: My UV Patch……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 147
Figure 63: Overview layers of L’Oreal skin patch……………………………………………………………………… 148
Figure 64: Global market size for conductive ink in healthcare 2015-2027………………………………. 149
Figure 65: The market for nanomaterials-based conductive inks in healthcare, by conductive ink type, 2018-2027, conservative estimate……………………………………………………………………………… 150
Figure 66: Flexible RFID tag…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 150
Figure 67: Graphene printed antenna………………………………………………………………………………………. 152
Figure 68: Printed antennas for aircraft…………………………………………………………………………………….. 153
Figure 70: The market for conductive inks in RFID (retail), by conductive ink type, 2015-2027.. 154
Figure 71: Energy harvesting textile…………………………………………………………………………………………. 156
Figure 72: Printed 1.5V battery…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 157
Figure 73: Energy densities and specific energy of rechargeable batteries………………………………. 159
Figure 74: Stretchable graphene supercapacitor………………………………………………………………………. 160
Figure 75: Enfucell Printed Battery…………………………………………………………………………………………… 160
Figure 76: StretchSense Energy Harvesting Kit……………………………………………………………………….. 161
Figure 77: LG Chem Heaxagonal battery…………………………………………………………………………………. 162
Figure 78: Demand for thin film, flexible and printed batteries 2015, by market……………………….. 165
Figure 79: Demand for thin film, flexible and printed batteries 2027, by market……………………….. 166
Figure 80: The market for nanomaterials-based conductive inks in energy storage, by conductive ink type, 2018-2027, conservative estimate………………………………………………………………………… 166
Figure 70: The market for conductive inks in energy storage and conversion (retail), by conductive ink type, 2015-2027…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 167
Figure 81: Flexible LCD……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 168
Figure 82: “Full ActiveTM Flex”…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 169
Figure 83: FOLED schematic……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 171
Figure 84: Foldable display………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 172
Figure 85: Stretchable AMOLED………………………………………………………………………………………………. 173
Figure 86: LGD 12.3” FHD Automotive OLED………………………………………………………………………….. 173
Figure 87: LECTUM® display…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 174
Figure 88: LG OLED flexible lighting panel……………………………………………………………………………….. 174
Figure 89: Flexible OLED incorporated into automotive headlight……………………………………………. 175
Figure 90: Stretchable material for formed an in-molded electronics………………………………………… 176
Figure 91: Wearable patch with a skin-compatible, pressure-sensitive adhesive……………………… 176
Figure 92: Thin film transistor incorporating CNTs……………………………………………………………………. 178
Figure 93: Thin film transistor incorporating CNTs……………………………………………………………………. 179

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